A Brief History of the Tujia: The Tujia in the Early Years of New China (Part 2)
II. Politics in Tujia Areas in the Early Years of New China — (1) The Struggle to Eliminate Kuomintang Remnants and Bandit Forces: After liberation, KMT remnants and bandits exploited the fledgling government's instability to gather forces in the Hunan-Hubei-Sichuan-Guizhou border region.
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II. Politics in Tujia Areas in the Early Period of New China
(I) The Struggle to Eliminate Kuomintang Remnants and Bandit Forces
After the liberation of the Tujia areas in the Hunan-Hubei-Sichuan-Guizhou border region, Kuomintang remnants and bandit forces, taking advantage of the newly established people's regime, the incomplete takeover and establishment of governance, and the main liberation army's advance into the great southwest to concentrate on encircling and annihilating Kuomintang remnant forces in Chengdu and Chuankang, gathered together, plotted to establish counter-revolutionary organizations, and attempted to strangle the new people's regime in its cradle. In November 1949, Tuo Gongting, the Kuomintang commissioner of the Eighth District of Sichuan Province, returned to Youyang from Chongqing at the end of November. Upon learning on the way that Youyang had been liberated, Tuo accelerated his anti-communist pace and held three consecutive meetings in December, namely the 'Echi Meeting,' 'Laobaigou Meeting,' and 'Bamian Mountain Meeting,' vigorously inciting hidden spies, bandit tyrants, and most former district, township, and bao armed forces in the Hunan-Hubei-Sichuan-Guizhou border region, thus forming a relatively large reactionary armed force.
In western Hunan, after the Bamian Mountain Meeting, various reactionary forces were ready to act. Zhang Zhongyu, Hou Zhenhan, and others met with Qu Boping in Longshan County, gathered various local armed forces and bandits from the Hunan-Sichuan-Hubei border region, and established the 'Hunan-Hubei-Sichuan Border Region Anti-Communist National Salvation Army.' In the Yongshun Special District, there were 137 groups of Kuomintang remnants and bandits, totaling over 30,000 people, known as the 'Six Divisions and One Brigade.' Among them, Yongshun County alone had 42 bandit groups with over 3,000 people. The more powerful one was Cao Zixi, entrenched in Jiashutang west of the county seat, with over 900 bandits.
After the liberation of western Hubei, the new people's regime was under construction, and social order was still chaotic. The hidden Kuomintang remnants, bandit tyrants, and local bullies in western Hubei took the opportunity to carry out counter-revolutionary activities. According to statistics, there were over 70 various reactionary armed groups in western Hubei with over 7,000 people. These reactionary armed forces roamed everywhere, looting, raping, killing, and robbing, and spreading rumors and slander against the Communist Party and the people's government. From January to May 1950, they launched more than 50 riots in Lichuan, Enshi, Xuan'en, Laifeng, and other places, killing over 70 PLA soldiers and local cadres.
In the eastern Sichuan region, reactionary forces in Youyang, Xiushan, Qianjiang, Pengshui, Shizhu, and other counties began to harass and disrupt local social order after the Bamian Mountain Meeting. By February 1950, bandits in Youyang County had grown to over 13,000 people. Among them, 49 bandit groups with over 4,400 people led by Tuo Gongting and Yang Shuchen harassed the area east of Liangya and west of Youshui; over 50 bandit groups with over 3,000 people led by Chen Quan and Xie Jian'an, based in Gongtan, operated in the triangular zone of Youyang, Qianjiang, and Pengshui counties; over 20 bandit groups with over 2,000 people led by Yang Dezi and Zhou Zhengzhi operated north of the Sichuan-Hunan Highway near Qianjiang. In Xiushan, the main reactionary forces included Yang Zhuozhi, Li Chen, Xiong Ziyun, Jian Guo'an, Chen Guangpei, and others, with 39 groups and over 4,000 people. After the PLA passed through, reactionary forces within and around the county also began rebellious and riotous activities. On February 10, 1950, Hunan bandit leader Zhou Xieqing led over 400 bandits into Xiushan and occupied the county seat. After the liberation of Qianjiang County, the PLA troops stationed in the county seat consisted of only one guard battalion with no more than 200 people, and the armed forces in each district were also very weak. At the end of December 1949, at the Bamian Mountain Meeting, Chen Quan was appointed commander of the Seventh Column, mainly operating in the Youyang and Qianjiang areas. Soon after, Yang Dezi established the Thirteenth Column independently, and they echoed the Seventh Column, colluding together. During the 1950 Spring Festival, bandits gathered over 1,000 people to besiege Qianjiang County seat but were defeated by the PLA. On March 1, Yang Dezi, Zhou Zhengzhi, Sun Pengcheng, and others gathered over 500 bandits to attack the Hekou District Government. On the eve of liberation, Zheng Ziyang, the magistrate of Lichuan County, Hubei, sent An Zibing to form the 'Youth Anti-Communist Corps' armed force on the border between Shizhu and Lichuan, which hid in the deep mountains when the liberation army passed through. In Shizhu, She Deyu, the township head of Qiaotou Township, secretly colluded with Tan Shaokui, Mao Shiyu, Tan Benquan, Li Wuchen, and others, preparing for a riot. In early 1950, Zhongtong spy Chen Yishou also came to Shizhu, arranged for Li Erchi, Li Erxi, and others to launch a riot, formed the 'Shizhu People's Volunteer National Salvation Army,' and planned and implemented the 'Layue 29 Qiaotou Riot.' On February 14, the riot began. Yu Wanfu and Liu Shaoyuan led bandits and hundreds of coerced and intimidated people, under the banner of the 'Youth Volunteer Resistance and National Salvation Army,' attacking Qiaotou. Tan Shaokui and Mao Shiyu each organized teams of three to four hundred people, totaling over 780 people. That night, they surrounded the Qiaotou District Office and occupied it on the morning of February 15. At the same time, riots also occurred in Zhongyi, Shazi, and Longsha townships.
After the liberation of northeastern Guizhou, local reactionary forces stepped up collusion with reactionary forces in the Hunan-Hubei-Sichuan border region and launched frenzied counterattacks against the people's regime. Among them, bandits in Yanhe County were the most rampant. The largest bandit leader in the county, Yang Tongxian, organized district and township heads and landlord tyrant armed forces, entrenched in 10 townships on the east bank of the Wu River, and colluded with Yang Tonghai in the Youyang area, contacting bandits from Youyang and Xiushan to come to Yanhe; in addition, there were bandit forces led by Li Zilian, Yuan Zhongying, Cai Shikang, and others. From March 1950, large-scale bandit riots occurred in northeastern Guizhou. In March 1950, the Guizhou Provincial Military District decided to temporarily abandon 21 counties in the province, and the people's governments of Yanhe, Yinjiang, Dejiang, Sinan, Wuchuan, Daozhen, and other counties moved to Tongren or Zunyi. After the Yanhe County People's Government evacuated, Gao Zhumei from Songtao led over 400 bandits to occupy Yanhe County seat. On August 5, major bandit leaders from Yanhe and neighboring counties held the 'Yanhe Meeting' in Zhongzhai Township, Yanhe, established the 'Hunan-Hubei-Sichuan-Guizhou People's Self-Defense Army,' set up 7 route commanders, and formed the Fourteenth Corps. In addition, Cai Shikang and Yang Tongxian formed the 'Yanhe Party, Government, and Military Anti-Communist Promotion Committee,' actively carrying out anti-communist activities. In March 1950, bandit riots occurred in Yinjiang County. Chen Shiying, then deputy commander of the bandit suppression command, appointed a large number of former Kuomintang officials and landlord tyrants as leaders at all levels, developed his own armed forces, and secretly colluded with bandit leaders Yang Zhuozhi, Gao Zhumei, Chen Ce, Wen Xizhe, and others, plotting to attack the people's governments of Xiushan and Songtao counties. In 1950, there were 28 relatively large bandit forces in Sinan County, with over 2,000 counter-revolutionary backbone elements and over 10,000 bandits. Of the county's 7 districts, 3 were attacked and occupied by bandits, and two-thirds of the county was controlled by bandits. On April 9, bandit leaders Cai Shikang, Shi Zhaozhou, Huang Youqun, Zhou Guangrong, and others led over 2,000 people from the Boping unit to capture Sinan County seat. On the 11th, Huang Youqun appointed himself 'county magistrate' and formed the 'Qiandong Communist Suppression Command.' After the liberation of Dejiang County, Wang Cexuan, She Guoru, Wu Zhongming, He Yongqing, and others colluded with counter-revolutionary forces in Yanhe, Sinan, Fenggang, and other places, swearing to resist to the end. On the night of April 2, 1950, bandits Chen Yinzhou and Tian Xingyang from Jiancha attacked Dejiang County seat, established the 'Party, Government, and Military Anti-Communist Promotion Committee,' and corresponding 'Anti-Communist Committees' were set up in various townships. Afterwards, bandits from Daxing, Fuxing, Jiancha, and other townships poured into the county seat. They destroyed transportation bridges, attacked the people's regime, killed cadres and the masses, and were extremely arrogant.
Faced with the counter-revolutionary rebellion in the Tujia areas of the Hunan-Hubei-Sichuan-Guizhou border region, the Chinese Communist Party resolutely organized forces to suppress it firmly. After the liberation of Chongqing in January 1950, Liu Bocheng and Deng Xiaoping instructed the 141st Division of the PLA to return to western Hunan to 'carry out the combat task of eliminating bandits in western Hunan and helping to establish and consolidate local regimes.' On July 23, the Government Administration Council and the Supreme People's Court issued the 'Directive on Suppressing Counter-Revolutionary Activities' and the 'Regulations of the People's Republic of China on Punishing Counter-Revolutionaries,' determined to suppress and strike at Kuomintang and bandit reactionary armed forces. In early January 1950, the 141st Division returned to western Hunan, began establishing the Yongshun Military Subdistrict, and made combat deployments: the 421st Regiment stationed in Longshan, tasked with bandit suppression in Longshan and areas north of Yongshun; the 422nd Regiment stationed in Guzhang, responsible for bandit suppression in Guzhang, Baojing, and south of Yongshun; the 423rd Regiment stationed in Dayong, responsible for bandit suppression in Sangzhi, Dayong, and east of Yongshun; the division headquarters of the 141st Division stationed in Yongshun County seat, with part of the division's direct organs stationed in Baojing. In early January 1950, the 141st Division and Yongshun Military Subdistrict decided to focus on striking the two bandit groups of Qu Boping and Shi Xingzhou, and dispatched the 422nd Regiment to cooperate with the 421st Regiment to jointly clear out the bandits entrenched in Liye, Longshan. On January 10, the PLA advanced toward Liye along the Xiche River and Longtou direction. On the 13th, they engaged the bandits, capturing over 100. Qu Boping retreated to Sichuan, returned to the Guitang and Laoxing areas of Longshan by a roundabout route. Shi Xingzhou's bandit group also fled to Bamian Mountain. Chen Zixian and Luo Wenjie led over a thousand bandits to Sichuan. The PLA immediately surrounded Bamian Mountain. In the early morning of the 20th, the PLA launched a fierce attack, finally breaking into Shi Xingzhou's lair, Yanzi Cave, annihilating over 500 enemies. In mid-January 1950, the 423rd Regiment of the PLA divided into three routes and quickly advanced to Binlangping at the junction of Yongshun, Sangzhi, and Dayong counties, surrounding over 3,000 people including Cao Zhenya, Liu Heqing, and Qin Tianbao. The PLA planned to annihilate the enemy together, but due to complex terrain and the bandits' familiarity with the roads, most bandits slipped away. The 422nd Regiment pursued and annihilated part of Chen Cexun's unit and all of Qin Tianbao's and Song Zhanyuan's units at Yangqi Mountain, and captured Liu Minsheng alive. Soon after, the 1st Battalion of the 422nd Regiment captured Feixian Cave in Sangzhi County, seizing Chen Tiantan and his bandits. After more than a month of encirclement and strikes, the bandit forces suffered heavy losses. In Guzhang, the bandit Zhang Ping was extremely evil, and a folk rhyme said: 'When heaven sees Zhang Ping, sun and moon are dim; when earth sees Zhang Ping, grass and trees do not grow; when people see Zhang Ping, nine out of ten die.' After the 423rd Regiment returned to Guzhang, on March 3, they destroyed Zhang Ping's lair, Lijiadong. Afterwards, the main forces immediately launched a pursuit. In mid-March, they completely defeated Zhang Ping's bandit group at Lijiazhai, and Zhang Ping escaped alone. On July 10, during a joint military-civilian mountain search and clearance, Zhang Ping was shot dead, and the people of Guzhang all clapped their hands in joy. In mid-April, the 2nd Battalion of the 422nd Regiment and the 1st Battalion of the 423rd Regiment captured Wulian Cave in Yongshun County, capturing over 100 people including Li Lanchu. Because the main PLA forces were transferred to fight elsewhere, Qu Boping, Shi Xingzhou, and others in Longshan regrouped and launched two attacks on Longshan County seat. Therefore, the 141st Division headquarters and Yongshun Military Subdistrict made new deployments, deciding to implement key clearing in the central area, quickly concentrating forces north of Sangzhi County and in the Xiche, Longtou, and Liye areas of Longshan County, focusing on clearing bandits in the area between Yongshun and Baojing and the triangular zone between Dayong, Sangzhi, and Yongshun. This key assault quickly eliminated some bandits, and most of the rest fled to deep mountains. At this point, there were basically no large bandit groups active in western Hunan.
After the summer of 1950, the 141st Division and Yongshun Military Subdistrict readjusted their work deployment: first, cooperating with local party and government organs to mobilize the masses, publicize the policies of the Chinese Communist Party, and develop and consolidate local regimes; second, closely cooperating between the military and civilians to continue clearing out remaining bandits and thoroughly eradicate the bandit scourge in western Hunan. By the end of July 1950, over 15,000 bandits had been annihilated, leaving only remnants such as Qu Boping, Shi Xingzhou, Xu Yanan, and Liu Heqing. From October, activities to pursue and clear remaining bandits in remote mountainous areas were launched. The main force of the 422nd Regiment of the PLA was transferred from Guzhang back to Liye, Longshan, responsible for bandit suppression south of Bamian Mountain and at the junctions of Yongshui and Baojing counties. On October 20, the 3rd Battalion of the 422nd Regiment, in the battle at Niulachang, killed Yang Shuchen, deputy division commander of Qu Boping's unit, and captured Qu Boping's wife alive, dealing a fatal blow to the remnant bandits. A few days later, bandit leaders such as Shi Xingzhou and Jia Qicai surrendered to the people's government one after another. The 423rd Regiment again divided into two routes to pursue and clear remnant bandits such as Cao Zixi and Liu Heqing in the Wanmingang area of Yongshun. After more than two months of fighting, they annihilated over 1,000 bandits and seized over 700 guns. The 421st Regiment, in the remote mountainous area at the junction of Longshan and Laifeng, fought side by side with brother units of the Enshi Military Subdistrict in Hubei, pursuing and clearing Qu Boping's remnants. Qu Boping, with no way out, had to surrender to the PLA. At this point, the People's Liberation Army, together with the masses, after one year and three months of arduous fighting, finally achieved a complete victory in bandit suppression in western Hunan.
During the liberation of western Hubei, the Independent Second Division of the Hubei Provincial Military District was ordered to remain stationed there, and was later reorganized into the Enshi Military Subdistrict. In early 1950, the military and civilians of Enshi adopted a strategy combining internal garrison and suppression with external advances, prioritizing military strikes while using political persuasion as a supplement, concentrating forces first on the most dangerous bandits, aiming to strike one group and deter a whole region. In January 1950, the Enshi Military Subdistrict cooperated with the Changde Military Subdistrict to jointly suppress the Tieluping and Zoumaping areas occupied by Zhu Jikai, routing the bandit forces, and Zhu Jikai surrendered with over 300 men. In early February, the 8th Regiment's 2nd Company of the Military Subdistrict besieged the Guyan Cave at Yuwendou, where the bandits attempted to put up a desperate resistance. But after 9 days, the bandits, sensing that their end was near, came out of the cave one after another to surrender. In early February, the Laifeng Battalion, after a night march, routed the Peng Yuqing forces that had fled to Muyegang in Youyang County, killing over 100 enemies. In March, the 3rd Battalion of the 8th Regiment of the Military Subdistrict, together with the county battalions of Laifeng and Xianfeng, launched five successive attacks against the bandits Qu Boping, Yang Shuchen, Peng Yuqing, Xiao Dacheng, and others along the borders of Laifeng, Longshan, and Youyang, routing them. In May, the Hefeng County Battalion launched a pincer attack on Wang Wuzhi and Qian Futang along the Wufeng-Hefeng border; after the bandits suffered heavy losses, Qian Futang surrendered, while Wang Wuzhi fled to Hunan. By May 1950, the Military Subdistrict forces had fought 23 battles large and small, annihilating 569 enemies, and the situation was basically brought under control. To expand the results, the CPC Enshi Prefectural Committee and the Military Subdistrict designated June and July as 'Bandit Suppression Assault Months,' establishing five bandit suppression command posts: Lichuan-West, Enshi-Fengjie, Badong-Jianshi-Hefeng, Xuan'en-Hefeng-Longshan, and Xianfeng-Youyang-Longshan. The Hubei Provincial Military District also sent the 1st Regiment of the Independent First Division to participate in the clearing operations. On the southern front, to strengthen and facilitate command, a Southern Front Command Post was established, first driving the Qu Boping bandit forces from their lair at Zhaotouzhai in Longshan, and then using elite troops for pursuit and suppression. On July 23, the 4th Company of the 1st Regiment discovered the Peng Zhennan bandit forces at Aitu and immediately gave chase; the bandits hid in the Dingjia Great Cave, and the 4th Company blew up the cave entrance, stormed into the cave, killed over 30 bandits, and more than 60 bandits surrendered. On June 18, the Xianfeng County Battalion learned that Yang Maolin and over 30 men were active at Qianjiang'ao and immediately pursued them, killing and wounding 8 bandits along the way; pursuing them to Liushugou on the Xianfeng-Qianjiang border, the bandits, having run out of ammunition and food, had no choice but to lay down their arms and surrender. Subsequently, bandit leaders Qin Jiemin and Zhang Xiaonan were captured, and Yao Shaomeng and others were shot dead. The 3rd Battalion of the 3rd Regiment of the Military Subdistrict pursued the Tian Caichen bandit forces for 3 days and 3 nights, covering over 150 kilometers, and finally eliminated them. In the bandit suppression battles on the western front, the People's Liberation Army completely annihilated the bandit gang of over 100 men under Zeng Zhaopin along the Lichuan-Shizhu border, and together with the Fengjie County Battalion routed Ran Zijiao at Xinbanqiao, annihilating over 40 bandits, and Wang Guannan surrendered with over 20 men. To thoroughly eradicate the bandit scourge, starting from August 15, 1950, the Enshi region launched a 'Bandit Suppression Honor Competition Month' activity. The fighting still focused on the southern front, and two bandit suppression command posts were established: Badong-Jianshi-Enshi and Xuan'en-Hefeng-Longshan. On August 16, the Laifeng County Battalion annihilated over 70 men of the Zhang Rangsheng Detachment of the Qu Boping bandit forces at Wangmao Wuji. In September, the 1st Regiment of the Military Subdistrict conducted clearing operations in the Anfu Si and Xiao'ao areas of Laifeng, and over 300 men under Xiang Xiancheng surrendered. In October, the Military Subdistrict, together with eastern Sichuan and western Hunan, jointly organized a three-province joint suppression command post to carry out joint suppression operations against Qu Boping and others. On the 11th, the Hefeng Battalion besieged Cao Ziya at Zhoujiazhuang in Wudaoshui, Sangzhi County, killing Cao and capturing 42 people including Huang Yunkeng and Huang Yunsi. On the 15th, all units began a full-scale offensive, capturing 163 people including Chen Shi, Deng Zhongli, Hou Weiyi, Zhou Shaomu, Yu Xianzhang, and Hou Zidao, killing 186 people including Tian Liangxin and Chen Yisan, and 384 people surrendered. By January 1951, the bandit forces in the entire region were basically eliminated.
After the People's Liberation Army advanced westward, the Youyang Military Subdistrict had fewer than 2,000 troops. Facing tens of thousands of bandits within its territory, its strength appeared very thin. To strengthen its forces, in January 1950, the Eastern Sichuan Military District transferred the 95th Regiment of the 22nd Division of the 11th Army of the Second Field Army to participate in bandit suppression. On January 30, 1950, Xiushan County town was occupied by bandits, and the county people's government organ was forced to relocate to Longtan Town within Youyang territory. The Youyang Military Subdistrict sent the 1st Regiment into Xiushan, established the Xiushan Bandit Suppression Command Post, and during the Spring Festival captured the county town in one stroke. In March, bandits in Bao'an and Liren in eastern Xiushan were rampant, and the People's Liberation Army again sent troops, defeating over 200 bandit soldiers under Qian Hanjie, and then heavily defeating Yang Dianchuan in western Xiushan. But by May, bandits in Xiushan territory began to operate again. In August, after bandit leaders Li Chen and Yang Zhuozhi attended the bandit 'Yanhe Meeting,' they organized over 4,000 people and planned to attack Xiushan County town again on September 4. Because the People's Liberation Army was well prepared, after fierce fighting, the enemy's attack was routed. To strike the bandits more effectively, the People's Liberation Army redeployed its strategy, deciding to use the Sichuan-Hunan Highway as the boundary and divide its forces into two major battlefields, east and west. The eastern battlefield included Xiushan's Longchi, Guanzhuang, Shiye, Yajiang, Shidi, Daxi and other townships to Youdong's Youchou, Houxi, and all the way to the Bamian Mountain area, and would coordinate with western Hunan forces to achieve the annihilation of the bandits. The western battlefield included Shiye, Cenxi, Meijiang, Lanqiao, Longfeng, Maopo, Rongxi to Youyang's Lixi, Xianba, Jiaoxichang, Nanyaojie, and the areas of Yanhe, Yinjiang, and Songtao in Guizhou, organizing the forces of Xiushan and Youyang, and coordinating with the main force of the 31st Division of the Tongren Military Subdistrict and the 540th Regiment, finally encircling and annihilating the enemy at Mount Fanjing. In November, the People's Liberation Army advanced along two routes, separately attacking and hunting down Yang Tongxian, Cai Shikang, Peng Jingren, Chen Guangpei, Ran Youlin, and others, ultimately killing Li Chen, Xiong Ziyun, and others, and capturing alive Chen Guangpei, Wang Xizhi, Jian Guo'an, and others, completely eliminating the bandit scourge in Xiushan. In Youyang, in February 1950, the People's Liberation Army decided first to strike the bandits entrenched at Paomuping in eastern Youyang. At that time, Tuo Gongting, Yang Shuchen, and others were holding a meeting at Paomuping, with over 3,000 bandits. In the early morning of February 7, the 95th Regiment attacked along three routes; after fierce fighting, over 100 bandits were killed or wounded, over 200 were captured, and the remaining bandits fled. In mid-March, the 3rd Battalion of the 95th Regiment and a battalion of the Military Subdistrict launched a surprise attack on over 800 bandits under Chen Quan and Xie Jian'an in the Xuetangping area northwest of Youyang, annihilating a large number of bandits. Later, in battles at Xujiazhai, Qinggangbao, Gongtan, and others, they heavily defeated the bandit soldiers, and the bandits' main force was forced to flee to the border areas between provinces and counties.
From July to the end of 1950, the Youyang Military Subdistrict and neighboring friendly forces organized four major joint suppression operations by the border area forces of the four provinces of Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan, and Hubei, namely the You-Qian-Peng Joint Suppression, the Sichuan-Hunan-Hubei Border Area Joint Suppression, the First Phase Joint Suppression of Northeastern Guizhou, and the Second Phase Joint Suppression of Northeastern Guizhou. In Sichuan, all four joint suppression operations dealt fatal blows to the local bandits. The You-Qian-Peng Joint Suppression took place in mid-to-late July 1950. Participating forces included the 3rd Battalion of the 95th Regiment, the 3rd Battalion of the Independent 1st Regiment, 2 battalions of the Independent 3rd Regiment, and the Youyang Independent Battalion, as well as the 106th and 107th Regiments of the Fuling Military Subdistrict. They encircled and suppressed the bandits entrenched in the triangular area of northwestern Youyang, southwestern Qianjiang, and eastern Pengshui, killing and wounding 208 bandits and capturing over 3,000 people including Xie Jian'an, Zhong Jucai, and Zhang Xiaonong (female). The Sichuan-Hunan-Hubei Border Area Joint Suppression took place in mid-October 1950. Mainly participating were the 2nd Battalion of the 94th Regiment, the 1st Battalion of the 99th Regiment, the 100th Regiment, the Hubei Independent 8th Regiment, and the 421st and 422nd Regiments of the Hunan Yongshun Military Subdistrict. They encircled and suppressed Yang Shuchen, Qu Boping, and Xiong Conglong, who were active along the adjacent border areas of Sichuan, Hunan, and Hubei. In the end, bandit leader Yang Shuchen was killed, over 1,900 people including Yang Dezi and bandit soldiers were captured, over 140 bandits were killed or wounded, and over 4,800 surrendered. The bandits in eastern Youyang were completely annihilated. The First Phase Joint Suppression of Northeastern Guizhou began on September 23, 1950, and ended on November 15. Sichuan's participating forces included the Independent 1st Regiment and the 95th Regiment of the Youyang Military Subdistrict and the two independent battalions of Youyang and Xiushan counties. They formed the Third Army Group and carried out powerful clearing operations against the bandits, successfully annihilating the bandits in Youyang and Xiushan. The Second Phase Joint Suppression of Northeastern Guizhou began on November 16, 1950. The Third Army Group forces formed by the Youyang Military Subdistrict participated in the encirclement and suppression of bandits in the Xiushan, Yanhe, and Songtao areas, killing Chen Yourui, Zhang Shaolin, and Xiong Conglong.
During the Spring Festival of 1950, bandits in Qianjiang County besieged the county town. The People's Liberation Army took the initiative to attack, annihilating over 30 people including Wang Guofeng in one stroke and crushing the bandits' siege. On March 1, they also repelled the bandits' attack on the Hekou District Government. On March 25, a fierce battle was fought with Yang Dezi's bandit forces at Tudiya, killing 7 enemies and capturing 11, while the rest fled. The People's Liberation Army pursued bravely and killed over 80 more enemies at Cangba, while the rest were captured in eastern Youyang. On July 21, at Banfangping, over 200 bandits were eliminated and 50 captured. On July 31, in the battle at Jinjiba, Sun Pengcheng's bandit soldiers were defeated, with over 20 killed and dozens wounded. In early August, Gong Yunlong and Zhou Zhengzhi's bandit soldiers were routed at Bandengyan, and Gong and Zhou were captured. By the end of October, over 4,000 bandits had surrendered, and the bandits in Qianjiang territory were basically eliminated. In Shizhu County, after the bandits' 'La Er Jiu Qiaotou Uprising' occurred, the CPC Shizhu County Committee immediately formed a temporary bandit suppression command post and quickly recaptured Qiaotou. From February 15 to March 15, 1950, over 120 bandits were captured and over 100 guns of various types seized. By the end of August, Ma Xiangming, Chen Youlin, Chen Wenping, Yu Xianzhang, Li Hanqing, Yu Wanfu, and others had laid down their arms and surrendered, and the bandit rebellion lasting more than half a year was quelled.
In the northeastern Guizhou region, according to the deployment of the Guizhou Provincial Military District, after voluntarily abandoning the county towns starting in April 1950, each county had garrison troops that persisted in struggling against the bandits. In early September, convened by the Southwest Military and Political Committee and the two provinces of Sichuan and Guizhou, an operational meeting attended by cadres at and above the regimental level of bandit suppression forces was held in Dongxi Town, Qijiang County. The meeting conveyed the Southwest Military District's tasks for joint suppression and put forward clear requirements for the clearing operations. The two provinces of Sichuan and Guizhou made new deployments for joint suppression along the Sichuan-Guizhou border: from late September to the end of December, on the basis of the Sichuan-Hunan-Hubei Border Area Joint Suppression, the Northeastern Guizhou Joint Suppression would be carried out, divided into two phases, the first and second. The participating forces were organized into 4 army groups: the 91st and 93rd Regiments of eastern Sichuan formed the First Army Group; the 146th Regiment of the Zunyi Military Subdistrict and the 148th Regiment of the Tongren Military Subdistrict formed the Second Army Group; the Youyang Military Subdistrict formed the Third Army Group; and the Fuling Military Subdistrict formed the Fourth Army Group, totaling 20 battalions with more than 13,000 troops.
The First Phase Joint Suppression of Northeastern Guizhou launched a large-scale clearing operation against the bandits Chen Quan, Yang Tongxian, Shi Zhaozhou, Yang Zhuozhi, Cai Shikang, Tan Xizhen, and others entrenched in the counties of Yanhe, Dejiang, Songtao, Wuchuan, Zheng'an, Daozhen, Pengshui, and Wulong. After the joint suppression began, each army group sent troops out separately to encircle and annihilate the bandits. On September 24, the Third Army Group divided into several routes and entered Yanhe County territory. By the 26th, it had controlled the county town and important townships in the east bank area, and quickly recaptured Yanhe County town. In late September, most of Chen Quan's bandits were annihilated at Huangtukan. On September 29, the Youyang 1st Regiment arrived at Jianjiazhai in Huangtu Township and encountered Chen Quan's first-line troops. After fierce fighting, this part of the bandits was finally annihilated. Later, Chen's second-line forces were surrounded and blockaded. Except for a few bandits including Chen Quan who escaped, more than 900 bandit soldiers surrendered and laid down their arms. The Youyang 1st Regiment pursued the victory and killed Cai Shikang and several other bandits at Niupitang. In early October, the Tongren Prefectural Commissioner's Office sent Fang Jianping, Tian Baiyu, and others to Yanhe to take over the county government work and established the Yanhe County Bandit Suppression Command Post. The command post made arrangements for bandit suppression work, changing the original 5 districts into 10 districts. Local cadres from districts and townships and battalion and company cadres from the bandit suppression forces jointly formed corresponding bandit suppression organs. Each platoon and squad, using combat groups as units, went deep into every village and every household, fully mobilizing the masses to clear out the bandits. At the same time, mass organizations such as peasant associations, women's associations, and children's corps were organized to implement joint defense, promoting and strengthening the bandit suppression work. Afterwards, Luo Yongxi, Chen Quan, Fan Xiangying, and others were captured one after another. On the west bank of the Wu River, under heavy military strikes, Chen Quan's bandit gang was completely annihilated, more than 6,000 people including Song Jingliu and Liu Ding laid down their arms and surrendered, and Li Zilian, Yuan Zhongying, and others were captured.
On November 16, 1950, the Second Phase Joint Suppression of Northeastern Guizhou began. The main task of this joint suppression was to encircle and annihilate the remaining bandits in the Mount Fanjing area. The main force of the 31st Division of the People's Liberation Army, the 91st Regiment, and the 93rd Regiment encircled and suppressed from Yinjiang and Sinan toward the northwest of Mount Fanjing; the main force of the Tongren Military Subdistrict and the 540th Regiment encircled and suppressed toward the south and southeast of Mount Fanjing; and the Youyang Military Subdistrict encircled and suppressed toward the east and northeast of Mount Fanjing. By December 15, the joint suppression task was completed, with over 200 bandits killed or wounded and over 2,500 captured. In Sinan, county people's government personnel returned to Sinan town on May 27, 1950. On June 11, 22 people including Qin Chaobi were captured. On July 15, a large search was conducted in Sinan County town, and over 80 bandits were seized. In August, bandits Huang Youqun, Yang Maosong, and others were executed by firing squad. In October, over 50 people including Deng Guijie and Shu Shaonan were captured alive, and later more than 240 people including Liu Guicheng, Yan Chaoting, Bao Zhengzhong, and Bai Chaozhen were captured. During the Northeastern Guizhou Joint Suppression, Dejiang County captured Wang Cexuan, She Guoru, He Yongqing, Cao Xianquan, Ao Rongtang, and others one after another. At this point, the Tujia areas of Guizhou had also basically wiped out the bandits clean.
After more than a year of arduous fighting, the Tujia and other ethnic groups of Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, and Guizhou actively cooperated with the People's Liberation Army and finally completed the task of thoroughly annihilating the bandits, and the people's political power quickly gained ethnic [rights].
In 1951, when the Hunan Branch of the Central and Southern Ethnic Visiting Delegation came to Hunan's ethnic minority areas to visit, it learned something about the Tujia people, and the local Tujia masses once again demanded confirmation of their status as a single ethnic minority. In December 1952, the Central-South Bureau and the Central-South Administrative Committee sent linguist Yan Xuejiong of the Central-South Ethnic Affairs Commission to investigate in Longshan, Yongshun, Guzhang, Luxi, and other places in western Hunan. He believed that the Tujia language belonged to a single ethnic minority language of the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, and that 'Bizika' was an independent ethnic minority. In September 1953, the Central Ethnic Affairs Commission organized experts including Wang Mingli of the Central Nationalities Institute to form the Central Investigation Group on the Hunan Tujia and came to Longshan, Yongshun, Baojing, and other places to conduct a comprehensive investigation of Tujia politics, economy, culture, language, customs, and habits. In early 1954, Wang Mingli wrote an investigation report titled 'An Overview of the Tujia of Western Hunan,' and Wang Jingru also wrote an investigation report based on the linguistic materials from the investigation.Preliminary Opinions on the Tujia Language of Western Hunan.
In 1955, the Central Nationalities Affairs Commission held a seminar in Beijing on the ethnic identification of the Tujia. Experts and ethnic affairs workers from the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress and the Central Nationalities Institute presented much evidence arguing that the Tujia were a single ethnic minority. In May 1955, the Central Nationalities Affairs Commission notified the Hunan Provincial Party Committee and relevant departments of the provincial people's government of the opinions discussed regarding the Tujia people and solicited their views. However, at that time, some people in the relevant Hunan provincial departments still held opposing opinions. For this reason, the Central Nationalities Affairs Commission again sent Pan Guangdan, head of the Ethnic Affairs Working Group of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, to conduct on-the-spot investigations in Yongshun, Longshan, and western Hubei. Based on the investigation, Pan Guangdan wrote the article "The 'Tujia' of Northwestern Hunan and the Ancient Ba People," arguing that the Tujia were a single ethnic group with its own distinctive characteristics. In May 1956, Pan Guangdan once again came to Jishou, Longshan, Yongshun, Laifeng, Baojing, Guzhang, and other places for investigation and interviews. After returning to Beijing, he wrote the "Report on a Visit to the 'Tujia' of Northwestern Hunan," in which he proposed to the central authorities that, whether from the perspective of ethnic theory, ethnic policy, objective conditions, or subjective demands, the "Tujia" should be accepted as a fraternal ethnic group. In May-June 1956, while Pan Guangdan was conducting investigations in western Hunan, the Central Nationalities Affairs Commission formed a Central Tujia Identification Group, whose members included Xie Hechou, Luo Bingzheng, Shi Lianzhu, and others. Together with Xie Hua, Zhong Hanjiu, and others from Hunan Province, they formed a joint investigation team. Through various methods such as holding symposia, individual visits, watching mass cultural activities, collecting physical objects, and audio and photographic recording, they conducted extensive investigations of the Tujia people in Yongshun, Baojing, Longshan, and other places. In August 1956, the investigation team wrote the "Investigation Report on the Tujia Question" and submitted it to the central authorities. In October 1956, the central authorities agreed to confirm the Tujia as a single ethnic minority and requested Hunan Province to write a report to the Party Central Committee so that an official document could be issued in reply. On December 8, 1956, the CPC Hunan Provincial Committee submitted to the Party Central Committee the "Report Requesting Approval of the Tujia as a Nationality." On January 3, 1957, the United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee, on behalf of the CPC Central Committee, issued a telegram formally determining the Tujia as a single ethnic minority. On March 15, 1957, Guangming Daily also announced that the Tujia were distributed in the mountainous areas at the junction of the four provinces of Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, and Guizhou. In March of the same year, Xiang Da and Pan Guangdan made a joint speech entitled "A Fraternal Ethnic Group of Northwestern Hunan, Southwestern Hubei, and Southeastern Sichuan—the Tujia" at the third plenary session of the Second National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference. In May 1957, the Hunan Provincial People's Committee and the Hunan Provincial Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference organized a 194-member Hunan Provincial Tujia Visiting Delegation to visit western Hunan. According to statistics at that time, there were 43,965 Tujia in Sangzhi County and more than 3,600 in Dayong County. In 1957, due to the impact of the expansion of the "Anti-Rightist" struggle, Xiang Da, Pan Guangdan, Peng Bo, Tian Xintao, Peng Xiushu, and others were labeled "rightists," which affected the identification of Tujia ethnicity in other places.
In western Hunan, as the identification of the Tujia gradually deepened, the issue of regional ethnic autonomy was also placed on the agenda. On December 7, 1956, the CPC Western Hunan Miao Autonomous Prefecture Prefectural Committee proposed the "Preliminary Plan for Realizing Tujia Regional Ethnic Autonomy" and discussed it preliminarily at the third enlarged plenary session of the first committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Western Hunan Miao Autonomous Prefecture, carrying out preliminary publicity work for the establishment of a Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture. On December 30, the CPC Hunan Provincial Committee submitted to the central authorities the "Request for Instructions on Issues Including the Establishment of a Western Hunan Tujia and Miao Joint Autonomous Prefecture." In January 1957, after the ethnic composition of the Tujia was formally determined, western Hunan attached even greater importance to planning regional ethnic autonomy. On March 1, 1957, the CPC Western Hunan Miao Autonomous Prefecture Prefectural Committee reported to the provincial committee a preliminary plan for preparing the establishment of a Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture. In May 1957, the Hunan Provincial Tujia Visiting Delegation came to western Hunan, publicizing the state's ethnic policies on the one hand and consulting with cadres and the masses on the form of regional ethnic autonomy on the other. On July 9, the United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee held a symposium in Changsha on the issue of Tujia regional autonomy in western Hunan. Xiang Da, Li Zhuchen, Jian Bozan, Wang Mingli, Xiao Li, Tang Shengzhi, Xie Hua, Shi Bangzhi, Liu Chun, Ma Jie, and others attended the meeting. On August 6, the Hunan Provincial People's Committee held an enlarged meeting, inviting more than 30 leaders from the Western Hunan Miao Autonomous Prefecture and Tujia and Miao cadres and intellectuals to attend as non-voting participants. The meeting discussed the Hunan Provincial Delegation's "Report on the Work of Visiting the Tujia" and passed the "Resolution on Establishing the Western Hunan Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture." The resolution pointed out that the Tujia and Miao peoples of western Hunan had inseparable relations in politics, economy, culture, residence, life, and all other aspects. Especially since the founding of New China, through a series of social reforms and social movements, they had formed an indivisible whole. Therefore, the plan to establish the Western Hunan Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture was the most appropriate and conformed to the wishes of the local masses. The meeting resolution requested the State Council to abolish the organizational system of the "Western Hunan Miao Autonomous Prefecture" and at the same time requested approval for the establishment of the "Western Hunan Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture." At this meeting, the Preparatory Committee of the Western Hunan Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture was also established. On September 6, 1957, the 57th plenary session of the State Council passed the "Resolution on Establishing the Western Hunan Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture of Hunan Province and Abolishing the Western Hunan Miao Autonomous Prefecture," formally deciding to abolish the Western Hunan Miao Autonomous Prefecture and establish the Western Hunan Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture of Hunan Province. The administrative area of the autonomous prefecture comprised 10 counties: Jishou, Luxi, Fenghuang, Huayuan, Baojing, Guzhang, Yongshun, Sangzhi, Longshan, and Dayong. The People's Committee of the autonomous prefecture was stationed in Jishou county town. On September 15, the First People's Congress of the Western Hunan Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture was held in Jishou. The meeting elected the prefect of the autonomous prefecture, members of the People's Committee of the autonomous prefecture, and the president of the Intermediate People's Court of the autonomous prefecture. On September 20, the establishment of the Western Hunan Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture was formally proclaimed. On September 21, more than 30,000 people of all ethnic groups from the local area came to Jishou to celebrate the establishment of the autonomous prefecture.
In western Hubei, as early as 1953, 5,694 people self-reported as Tujia. In 1954, the state began ethnic identification work in the area. In 1956, Pan Guangdan also came to Laifeng, Xuan'en, Xianfeng, Lichuan, and other counties in western Hubei to conduct investigations. In May 1957, the Ethnic Affairs Working Group of the Hubei Provincial Inspection Delegation conducted an investigation of the Tujia people in the three counties of Laifeng, Hefeng, and Xuan'en. In October 1957, the Hubei Provincial Party Committee and Provincial Government held the province's first ethnic affairs work conference. In December of the same year, the Enshi Prefectural Committee and Administrative Office established the Ethnic and Religious Affairs Section. In April 1958, the Enshi Prefectural Committee and Administrative Office held the first ethnic affairs work conference of the entire region. Afterwards, each county carried out investigations into the basic situation of ethnic minorities. In 8 counties including Laifeng, Hefeng, and Xianfeng, a total of 183,037 Tujia were registered in some townships, and some Tujia also raised demands for autonomy. In November 1958, statistics from the Enshi Prefecture showed 634,651 Tujia. Just as the identification work was unfolding comprehensively, with the expansion of the "Anti-Rightist" struggle, the ethnic identification work in western Hubei was also forced to stop. In fact, during the process of Tujia identification in western Hubei, the local masses already had the desire to establish regional ethnic autonomy. Especially in September 1957, after the Western Hubei Ethnic Minority Visiting Delegation attended the founding congress of the Western Hunan Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, the desire to realize regional ethnic autonomy became even stronger. The masses in counties adjacent to western Hunan, such as Laifeng, Hefeng, and Xianfeng, were especially eager. At that time, two townships in Hefeng County applied to realize autonomy, Taiping Township in Xianfeng County spontaneously hung out the sign "Taiping Tujia Autonomous Township," and some people in Laifeng County said: "We drink the water of the same You River as Longshan, and we are also a county with many Tujia. They have autonomy, why can't we?" Some ethnic minority people in Maodong, Sanba, and other townships in Maodong District even moved their household registration to Longshan, Hunan. In view of this situation, the Enshi Prefectural Committee and the Administrative Office prepared to apply for the establishment of an "Western Hubei Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture." However, during the "Anti-Rightist" struggle at that time, some people insisted that demanding the realization of regional ethnic autonomy was a manifestation of local nationalism and ethnic separatism, causing the Enshi Prefectural Committee and Administrative Office to abandon the plan to establish an autonomous prefecture. In their report to the United Front Work Department of the Hubei Provincial Party Committee, they stated: "In the future, apart from conducting targeted publicity of ethnic policies and communist education in Tujia concentrated areas, the ethnic issue will no longer be highlighted." At this point, the issue of regional ethnic autonomy was shelved.
The identification work of the Tujia was of great significance. It not only demonstrated that the government respected the ethnic wishes of ethnic minorities, safeguarded the survival rights and political rights of ethnic minorities, and created favorable conditions for the social development of ethnic minority areas, but also, due to people's enthusiastic participation, the state's ethnic policies were tested in practice, and the results of the identification also proved their correctness. Although the political movements at that time affected the identification work of the Tujia, it accumulated rich experience and laid a solid foundation for the later improvement of Tujia identity identification work in western Hunan and Hubei and other areas and the establishment of Tujia autonomous areas.