A Brief History of the Tujia: Tujia Culture Around the War of Resistance
Section 3: Tujia Culture Around the War of Resistance — During this period, school education developed amid setbacks, and revolutionary ideas brought changes to traditional Tujia thinking. Tujia patriots produced culturally rich works with strong revolutionary themes.
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Section 3 Tujia Culture Before and After the War of Resistance
During this period, school education developed amid setbacks. The introduction of revolutionary thought brought a certain degree of change to the traditional concepts of the Tujia people. Some Tujia patriots and people of ideals began to struggle hard for democracy and freedom. The cultural works they created carried a strong revolutionary flavor and became the cultural mainstream of the time; in addition, local quyi and drama added many new contents and forms, with distinctive characteristics.
In the 1930s, warlord strife in the Tujia region intensified, education was severely damaged, most schools closed, and the number of students enrolled dropped sharply. Taking Guzhang County as an example, by 1935 only one county-run model primary school remained in the whole county, with only more than 120 students; "as for township-run primary schools, there were at most no more than twenty, and they not only had no fixed funds but also no fixed school sites." Of the 50 rural primary schools opened in the past, almost all were forced to close and could not be restored. Conditions in other counties were broadly similar.
During the War of Resistance Against Japan, large areas of national territory gradually fell, and schools in some occupied areas were forced to relocate to the western Hunan and western Hubei region, which promoted the gradual recovery and some development of education in the Tujia region. The two rural simple normal junior middle schools in Yongshun County, one jointly run and one provincial-run, had 540 students; in addition, there was the relatively large provincial First Public Education Hall, which moved from Changsha. In 1937, central national schools were established in each township, and in 1939 primary schools were mostly established in each bao. In Baojing County, in addition to 3 public primary schools and 2 private primary schools, 2 complete primary schools, the Model School and the Girls' School, were successively restored, 81 primary schools were added in the townships, and 20 short-term primary school classes were run, with a total of 109 public and private schools, including 1 church school run by an American Catholic church. In western Hubei, counties such as Badong, Jianshi, Lichuan, Enshi, Hefeng, and Xianfeng all had branch schools of the joint middle school, with a total of more than 10,000 students. After the fall of Wuhan, 25 colleges, universities, and middle schools, including the National Hubei Normal College, the School of Engineering of Wuhan University, and the Provincial Agricultural College, moved to the Enshi region. The National Commercial College, the National Eighth Middle School, and the Jiangsu Provincial Middle School Traveling in Hunan successively moved from Changsha, Jiangsu, and Anhui to Suoli (present-day Jishou), Qiancheng, and other places. The relocation of these schools gave Tujia youth the opportunity to study nearby and played a positive role in promoting culture and education in the Tujia region. Many teachers with rich teaching experience who came from the occupied areas were hired to teach in schools in various places, raising the local teaching level somewhat.
After the War of Resistance Against Japan ended, schools that had moved in from Wuhan, Changsha, and other places successively withdrew. The Kuomintang, disregarding the opposition of the people of all ethnic groups across the country, brazenly relaunched a large-scale civil war. In addition, bandits ran rampant in the Tujia region, society was unstable, and education was severely damaged. Educational funds were short; some schools were forced to close, and some opened and closed intermittently. Teachers' pay was meager, and many teachers even thought that "teaching for three years is not as good as a carrying pole." As for those schools that continued to operate, "because the major power of the schools was entirely controlled by local despots and evil gentry, and the principals were like puppets," they arbitrarily installed their cronies and even passed off students who had just graduated from lower primary school as primary school teachers, thus lowering the quality of education.
But during this period, among Tujia intellectuals there appeared some figures who contributed considerably to China's cultural development. For example, Zhang Yizun, a Tujia from Jishou County, was already famous for painting horses in the 1930s, and also had deep attainments in landscape, flower, and bird painting; in 1946 he held a solo exhibition in Shanghai. Huang Yongyu, a Tujia from Fenghuang County, also became renowned in the art world for his woodcuts and gained fame at home and abroad.
In terms of revolutionary culture, this was mainly reflected in the works of some revolutionary martyrs. In addition, because they suffered deeply from the chaos of war, ordinary people also created a large number of folk ballads and folk legends to recount the suffering and torment they experienced and to express the anger and revolutionary passion in their hearts. Works of Revolutionary Martyrs
During this period, patriots and people of ideals in the Tujia region did not hesitate to shed their blood and lay down their lives for the liberation of the nation. They not only used weapons to oppose reactionary forces, but also created a large number of revolutionary works to expose social abuses. Among them, Mou Lunyang was one of the outstanding representatives.
Mou Lunyang, a native of Lichuan, Hubei, was born in 1919. After the July 7 Incident, he came to Yan'an. In May 1938, he volunteered to go to the front and became an editor and reporter for the Anti-Japanese War News in the Jin-Cha-Ji Border Region. In the autumn of 1942, he served as editor-in-chief of the National Salvation News in the Jidong and Renan region and concurrently editor-in-chief of the comprehensive publication New Great Wall. In 1943, he was transferred to serve as editor-in-chief of the National Salvation News (Yanshan edition) of the Fifteenth Sub-district of Jidong. He died in battle on April 5, 1943, at the age of only 24. During his lifetime, Mou Lunyang created a large number of poems, essays, and battlefield reports, of which only some works survive today. His poetry praised revolution and was closely linked with the times. For example, in "Poem for Village Heads," he wrote: "Village heads, today you are the cornerstone of the border region; strive hard to make the fortress especially firm, and do not let them waver in the slightest in the storm..." This highly praised the strong grassroots cadres of the border region who shared the fate of the masses. "The Sons and Brothers on Mount Taihang" praised Zhu Minying, a political officer of the Eighth Route Army on Mount Taihang, and praised the flesh-and-blood relationship between the army and the people. In 1939, the poet wrote "Building a Wall with Life" to celebrate the victory of the Eighth Route Army in the battle in Yi County, Hebei.
II. Folk Ballads
After the Revolution of 1911, the people of the Tujia region created many ballads reflecting the chaotic social conditions and the people's suffering at the time. For example, one reflecting warlord strife goes: "In Baojing there was a Lord Wang, who quickly sent out Tian Genchen, ninety thatch bundles and thirty roots, and fought another round at the beach. Many greenwood men were killed. This Hong Shaolin from Sichuan quickly wanted to come down to Baojing city. Lord Wang, when he got the news, quickly sent out Li Shuchun, advancing on three roads." One reflecting the people's impoverished life goes: "On Bamian Mountain are rocky nests, few are rich and many are poor; the rich cover themselves with flowered quilts, the poor crawl into corn husks." One reflecting the contradiction between the people's beautiful aspirations and real life goes: "Since the Qing emperor came, the Tusi princes were driven from power. When the Tusi stepped down I was happy, hoping for a good world. The court sent down officials, and the eight official yamen opened toward the south. Without reason or money, do not enter; each dynasty was worse than the last. In the Republic it became even more absurd, days were like a muddy pond. The grain harvested went to the landlords, the sons raised went to Old Chiang." During this period, the Tujia people also created many ballads closely linked to the revolutionary era. Among them, those reflecting the period of the First Revolutionary Civil War include: "A spring thunder resounded across the world, the savior Communist Party came; red flags fluttered and purple clouds opened, from then on heaven and earth turned." Ballads reflecting the period of the Second Revolutionary Civil War include: "The sun rises and the whole sky is red, take up the spear and follow He Long; He Long follows the Communist Party, a good hero who saves the country and the people." "When eating vegetables, eat the heart of cabbage; when joining the army, join the Red Army; the Tujia will follow the Red Army, at night there is the North Star." "If you want to eat peppers, do not fear the heat; if you want to join the Red Army, do not fear death; put a knife to your neck, and if your head falls, the scar is only bowl-sized." "Little bamboo tube, thick as a wine cup, some like it and some cry; when the White bandits blow it they lose their heads, when I blow it I laugh ha ha." "Ever since the Red Army came to my flatland, heaven and earth changed in an instant; men and women all spoke of equality, and women from then on gained liberation." Those reflecting the War of Resistance Against Japan include: "Traitors are not human, surrendering to little Japan; China is sold out clean, brothers, are you not heartbroken to see it?" "In the first month comes the new spring, old customs let everyone listen; listen to me sing a new tale, are you willing or not? Young people, have ambition, defeat little Japan."
III. Folk Legends and Stories
During this period, in the creation of legends and stories, many took witty figures and revolutionary stories as themes. For example, among stories of witty figures, the intelligence and talent of the Tujia people in struggling against old forces were embodied, and "The Story of Yan Changshun" is relatively representative. Yan Changshun, a native of Shaohe Township in Yongshun, came from a poor family and became a long-term hired laborer for a landlord at the age of 13. In the course of working as a hired laborer, he struggled against the landlord in ingenious ways, leaving behind a series of stories that circulated widely in western Hunan. In addition, there were also many stories reflecting revolutionary struggle. Those praising He Long's revolutionary deeds include "Talent of Kongming," "Share Salt Together," "Meeting the Army Commander," "Raid on the Salt Bureau at Bamaoxi," and "Single-Handed Meeting with Chen Hei"; stories praising the Red Army include "The Discipline of the Red Army" and "A Barrel of Tung Oil." These revolutionary stories adopted a method combining realism and romanticism, narrating the noble qualities of revolutionary leaders and Red Army soldiers and expressing the unity and friendship between the army and the people.
IV. Quyi and Drama
The quyi of the Tujia people has a long history. After the replacement of native officials with appointed officials, with the large-scale introduction of outside culture, quyi in the Tujia region developed rapidly, and by after the Revolution of 1911 it had become quite mature, forming many quyi varieties with their own styles. At the same time, drama in the Tujia region also developed on the previous foundation.
Changyang Nanqu was popular in Changyang and Wufeng counties and was a product of cultural exchange between the Tujia and Han peoples. It has three notable characteristics: first, elegant lyrics; second, beautiful tunes; third, self-accompanied singing. Its performance method is mostly seated singing, with forms such as one person singing with accompaniment, two people singing in dialogue, and multiple people singing in chorus. Its repertoire covers a wide range of themes, mostly taken from earlier history, literature, and drama, such as those taken from Romance of the Three Kingdoms, including "Saving the Lord at Changban" and "Lord Guan Takes Leave of Cao,"Kongming Worships the Lamp', etc., and those taken from 'Romance of the Western Chamber' include 'Hongniang Delivers the Letter', 'Yingying Seeks a Prescription', etc. The lyrics of Changyang Nanqu mostly adopt a subjective lyrical style, and also combine descriptive narrative styles for telling character stories, appealing to both refined and popular tastes. For example, a passage in 'Autumn' says:"Phoenix tree leaves fall, it is exactly golden autumn; as soon as the golden wind rises, the summer heat recedes, stirring the wanderer's homesickness. White clouds move with the wind, pushing out the mountain peaks; the four neighbors grow solemn, wild geese pass the southern tower."
Enshi Yangqin, also known as Enshi Sixian, was mainly circulated in Enshi, Xianfeng, Laifeng, Xuan'en, Lichuan, and other places. It is a quyi genre in Hubei local tunes with strong musicality and rich expressiveness. It belongs to a form of entertainment for self-amusement and self-singing, with no professional artists and no professional troupes. The singers were mostly literati and refined scholars as well as traveling merchants and shopkeepers. It was not performed or enjoyed publicly before crowds, but was mostly sung by invitation among relatives and friends, hence the saying "Singing tunes until the fifth watch crow, one does not play the qin unless among friends." Its repertoire mostly consists of traditional themes, with abundant content and strong literary quality.
Nanxi also developed considerably during this period. On the one hand, the number of plays increased, with the number of Nanxi excerpt plays using northern and southern vocal styles increasing to more than 500; on the other hand, the number of various training-class performers increased. These training-class performers were mostly children of poor families. They traveled around the border region of Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, and Guizhou, not only singing when invited by government hall gatherings, but more often performing for rural communal feasts, such as singing the "Green Sprout Meeting" in the third month, the "Lord Guan's Birthday" in the fifth month, and the "Sichuan Fifth Meeting" in the sixth month.