A Brief History of the Tujia — The Tujia Before the Sui (III)
III. Tujia Resistance Struggles from Han to Northern and Southern Dynasties: From the Han to the Northern and Southern Dynasties, successive feudal central courts continuously strengthened rule over the Hunan-Hubei-Chongqing-Guizhou border region and increased taxes, provoking Tujia resistance. These struggles included both Tujia leaders resisting central court rule and the Tujia people fighting against ethnic and class oppression...
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III. Resistance Struggles of the Tujia from Han to Northern and Southern Dynasties
From the Han to the Northern and Southern Dynasties, as successive feudal central dynasties continuously strengthened their rule over the borders of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou and increased taxes, the Tujia people were provoked into resistance. In these struggles, there were both struggles of Tujia chiefs against central dynasty rule and struggles of the Tujia people against ethnic oppression and class oppression, and sometimes these two types of struggle were intertwined and difficult to separate.
(1) Resistance Struggles during the Two Han Dynasties
In the early Western Han, Qianzhong Commandery of Qin was changed to Wuling Commandery, and a loose-control policy was implemented toward the Ba people living in the Wuling area. At the same time, the Ba people, regardless of size, were required to pay cong cloth to the court, which caused dissatisfaction among the Ba people. Although the Ba people occasionally resisted, it had not yet affected the Western Han Dynasty's anti-control struggle in Wu, and only in the Eastern Han was the goal of "establishing senior officials and returning" achieved. In the first year of Jianchu of the Eastern Han (76), Chen Cong, a "Lizhong barbarian" of Wuling, raised troops in resistance; in the winter of the same year, the "Lingyang barbarian" Wuli Jingfu led the masses in response. This joint uprising lasted about a year of fighting, and was eventually crushed by Han troops due to isolation. In the third year of Jianchu, Qin Erjian and others of the "Lizhong barbarians" (present-day Cili and Shimen) rose again, fighting in the Lou and Li river basins of Lingyang, Zuotang, and Chanling in Wuling and Nan commanderies. The Eastern Han Dynasty, with the military forces of nine commanderies and using Wuli Jingfu as an internal collaborator, took two years to defeat the rebel army at Hongxia (southwest of present-day Yuanling County). Qin Erjian died heroically, and the Qin troops retreated to Lizhong. The Eastern Han had no choice but to disband the garrison troops of Wuling to end the fighting.
In the late Eastern Han, the ruling group became corrupt, the power of local strongmen expanded daily, local officials arbitrarily exploited and acted tyrannically, and peasants displaced by famine rose in revolt everywhere, and struggles against Eastern Han rule continuously erupted. In the winter of the fourth year of Yongyuan (92), the "Louzhong and Lizhong barbarians," under the command of Tan Rong, burned post stations, cut off traffic, and killed the exploitative Han officials. The Eastern Han Dynasty sent commandery troops to suppress them. In the thirteenth year of Yongyuan, Xu Sheng of the "Wu barbarians" (present-day Badong and Wushan), "because the commandery collected taxes unevenly, harbored resentment," raised the standard of revolt, attacked places adjacent to Nan Commandery, and advanced toward the seat of Nan Commandery. The Eastern Han Dynasty panicked and hastily conscripted over ten thousand commandery troops from several commanderies of Jingzhou (equivalent to the six commanderies of Jiangling, Yiling, Liyang, Wuling, Changsha, and Hengyang in the Tang Dynasty) to surround and block them. The rebel army was scattered, and the Eastern Han court relocated them to the Jiangxia area (present-day Yunmeng, Hubei) to keep them under surveillance.
In the second year of Yuanchu of the Eastern Han (115), the Qiang rebel army of the northwest attacked Wudu, Hanzhong, and Ba Commandery. The "various barbarians" of Louzhong, Lizhong, and Lingyang, deeply resentful of "the inequity of corvée in the commanderies and counties," under the leadership of Tian Shan and Gao Shao, formed a rebel force of over two thousand people, attacked cities near Lizhong, and punished and executed the senior officials sent by the Eastern Han to garrison. Lizhou Commandery had no troops to send, so it exploited the internal contradictions between the "barbarian people" and "barbarian chiefs," recruited local Wuli and Liuting "barbarian soldiers," and under the command of their Jingfu, scattered the rebel army. The following year, over four thousand "barbarians" of Louzhong and Lizhong rose again. Over a thousand "Lingyang barbarians," with red turbans as their marker, with Chen Tang and Yang Sun calling themselves generals, formed a rebel army, burned Eastern Han official buildings, confiscated official property, and the flames of rebellion spread throughout the Lou and Li river basins. Eastern Han commandery officials repeated their old tricks, using divide-and-conquer tactics to recruit "good barbarians" to scatter the rebel army that dared to resist enslavement.
In the first year of Yonghe (136), the commandery governors sent by the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Wuling area were mostly incompetent men who thought the submissive "barbarians" could be bullied and demanded increased taxes according to Han district standards to claim credit. Emperor Shun of Han listened to sycophantic words and greatly increased tribute taxes. "The Louzhong and Lizhong barbarians, because of 'disputing tribute cloth contrary to the old agreement,' killed village officials and raised the banner of revolt." The rebel army grew rapidly. The following year, over twenty thousand rebels besieged Chongcheng (in present-day Sangzhi), and eight thousand attacked all the way to Yidao (in present-day Yichang), punishing corrupt officials. The Eastern Han Dynasty sent Li Jin, Prefect of Wuling, to mobilize troops and suppress them. Although this uprising failed, it forced Li Jin to "select good officials and pacify the barbarians," adopting a more moderate policy. In the first year of Yuanjia of Emperor Huan of Han (151), Zhan Shan of the "Wuling barbarians" led over four thousand followers in revolt, arrested the county magistrate, stationed troops in deep mountain streams and caves, and continued the struggle. The Eastern Han had no choice but to dispatch troops and build fortifications to guard. It was not until the first year of Yongxing (153) that the Eastern Han Dynasty was forced to replace the Prefect of Wuling and adopt a policy of pacification, and the struggle gradually eased. In the third year of Yongshou of Emperor Huan of Han (157), "the world suffered famine, and the treasury was exhausted," and ethnic minorities in Changsha and Wuling areas successively resisted. The "Changsha barbarians" stationed at Yiyang, and by the autumn of the third year of Yanxi (160), their forces had expanded to over ten thousand, attacking commanderies and counties and killing officials. At the same time, the "Lingling barbarians" attacked Changsha. In the fifth year of Yanxi, the "Wuling barbarians" gathered again, attacking Jiangling with six thousand troops. The Inspector of Jingzhou and the Prefect of Nan Commandery all abandoned their cities and fled, and the flames of rebellion spread throughout the two Hu regions. Emperor Huan wrote in an edict to the General of Chariots and Cavalry: "The barbarians disturb the Xia, and have long not been subdued; they each burn the capital cities and trample on officials. The generals and officials of the provinces and commanderies, ministers who died in office, chased each other in flight, never looking back." The great uprising of all ethnic groups in Changsha and Wuling areas dealt a heavy blow to Eastern Han rule. The rebel armies of all ethnic groups in the Wuling area had expanded to one hundred thousand at their peak. The Eastern Han Dynasty sent General of Chariots and Cavalry Feng Kun, mobilizing over one hundred thousand troops from Danyang and the Banyan barbarians, before suppressing the great uprising of all ethnic groups in Wuling, Changsha, and other places.
In the first year of Zhongping of Emperor Ling of Han (184), the great Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out and received cooperation and support from the peoples of the south. In the third year of Zhongping, the "Wuling barbarians" took up arms and attacked provinces and commanderies, becoming a component of the nationwide rebel forces at the time. During the Jian'an era of Emperor Xian of Han, the "barbarians" of Wuling rose in succession, attacking cities and towns, and even reaching the city of Wuling Commandery. But by this time, Cao Cao, Liu Bei, and Sun Quan had already used the opportunity of the Yellow Turban Rebellion to contend for supremacy. Sun Quan transferred Huang Gai as Prefect of Wuling to suppress them. Huang Gai opened the commandery city gates, and when half the rebel army had entered the city, suddenly counterattacked, causing the rebel army to lose more than half its troops, then defeated them one by one, suppressing this uprising, causing "the various marquises and chiefs of the remote Ba, Li (should be Li), You, and Dan (should be Xie) towns to all change their conduct and allegiance," submitting to Wu.
(2) Resistance Struggles during the Three Kingdoms to Northern and Southern Dynasties
During the Three Kingdoms period, the borders of Chongqing, Hubei, and Hunan became an important area contested between Sun Wu and Shu Han. Wu generals Lu Xun, Li Yi, and others led troops to preemptively occupy Wushan, Zigui, and other places in the gorge river area, blocking Shu Han. During the Zhangwu era (221-222), Shu Han sent Wu Ban and Feng Xi to lead Shu troops to defeat the Wu army and occupy the Zigui and Yiling areas. After Liu Bei occupied the gorge river area, in order to expand his power, he immediately sent Shizhong Ma Liang with gold, silver, and brocade to win over the "Wuling Five Streams barbarians," granting them official titles and ranks, and obtaining their support. "Thereupon the various barbarians of Wuling Five Streams responded one after another, following their tribes, and were settled in various commanderies and counties." Soon after, Lu Xun led the Wu army in using fire attack tactics, defeating the Shu army at Yiling (in present-day Yichang), and some places in Nan and Wuling commanderies were again occupied by Wu. The repeated contention between Shu and Wu made life difficult for the people of the gorge area and the Five Streams region. In the second to third years of Huanglong of Wu (230-231), the "Wuling Five Streams barbarians" rose in resistance. With tens of thousands of people, relying on mountain strongholds, they resisted Sun Wu's "pacification of the southern lands," attacking all the way to the border of Changsha and Langzhou. Sun Wu hastily sent Pan Rong with fifty thousand troops to brutally suppress them. "From then on the various barbarians weakened, and the region was quiet." Around the eleventh year of Yanxi of Shu (248), Xu Ju (a major chief) among the "Fuling barbarians" led the masses against Shu Han control. As a result, Shu Han sent additional government troops to suppress them. In the sixth year of Yongan of Wu (263), Shu was annexed by Wei, and Wu and Wei contended for Wuling Commandery. Guo Chun, stationed by Wei at Hanjia County of Fuling Commandery (present-day Pengshui area), led the "barbarians" of Fuling into Chisha of Qianling (present-day Baojing and Xiushan areas) within Wu's Wuling Commandery, induced them to be loyal to Wei, and attacked Youyang County (west of present-day Yongshun County) to block the Wu army's westward advance and oppose Sun Wu control. Sun Wu sent Yueji Xiaowei Zhongli Mu with over fifty thousand troops to suppress them, brutally killing over a hundred of their leaders and over a thousand of their followers.
In the late Western Jin, due to the "War of the Eight Princes" that lasted over a decade and caused severe damage to social production, coupled with famine years, millions of peasants wandered to foreign lands and rose in revolt one after another. The "various barbarians" living in Tianmen and Wuling commanderies also took the opportunity to rise in revolt against Western Jin rule. In the early Yongjia era of Emperor Huai of Jin (around 307-308), the "various barbarians" of Tianmen and Wuling rose in revolt, and Ying Zhan, Prefect of Nanping Commandery, led troops to suppress them. Because the rebel army was numerous, Ying Zhan found it difficult to suppress them, so he adopted a policy of pacification, "breaking bronze tallies and concluding treaties with the various barbarian chiefs," maintaining a brief period of peace. In the fifth year of Yongjia (311), the Ba and Shu refugees of Jing and Xiang regions elected Du Tao, a native of Chengdu, as their leader, rose in revolt, and captured the various commanderies of southern Hunan. Wang Gong, a general under Du Tao, led over three thousand people out of the Wuling River, joined with the "Five Streams barbarians," and advanced toward Wuchang. Changsha Prefect Tao Kan sent Zheng Pan and Tao Yan with troops to block them at Baling, suppressing the joint struggle of the refugees and the "Five Streams barbarians."
After the fall of the Western Jin in 317, during the over two hundred years of contention among the northern and southern dynasties, the Tujia region on the borders of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou was full of various social contradictions, with class struggle and ethnic struggle intertwined, forming a complex political situation. Among these were the contention between north and south, the Tujia struggle against exorbitant taxes and corvée, and Tujia chiefs occupying one area, calling themselves kings and marquises in separatist rule, and their wavering between the Northern and Southern Dynasties, sometimes south and sometimes north, in order to stabilize their own rule.
The Eastern Jin, content with a corner of Jiangzuo, although still implementing a loose-control strategy toward the various peoples of Jiangnan, sent mostly cruel officials to pacify the various ethnic minority areas, endlessly exploiting the ethnic minority peoples. In the fourth year of Xianhe of Eastern Jin (329), the "Five Streams barbarians" gathered in revolt against Jin to shake off Eastern Jin control. Tao Kan, Duke of Changsha Commandery, sent Ziyi Canjun Zhang Dan to suppress them. In the second year of Ningkang (374), the "Tianmen barbarians" living in the Louzhong and Li River basins rose in resistance, killed the prefect sent by the Eastern Jin, and attacked the seat of Tianmen Commandery. The Eastern Jin sent General Huan Huo to suppress them. In the eleventh year of Taiyuan of Emperor Xiaowu (386), Guo Liangzhi and the "Wuling barbarians" joined with the Wuling garrison troops to rise against Jin, and the Prefect of Wuling abandoned the city and fled. Shen Yue led troops to counterattack. In the battle of Qili Jian, Guo Liangzhi died in battle, and the rebel army's struggle failed. In the sixth year of Yixi (410), the Lu Xun uprising occurred, and ethnic minority masses in the Jianghan and Badong areas also rose in response, and the local feudal forces received a heavy blow.
After Liu Yu succeeded the Jin, he continuously increased rents and corvée, so that "the corvée and taxes were too heavy, and the Man could not bear their fate," and thus they rose up in resistance. In the eighteenth year of Yuanjia of the Liu Song of the Southern Dynasties (441), the "Louzhong Man" of Tianmen Commandery rose in revolt, and under the leadership of Tian Xiangqiu (also written Tian Qiu), attacked Louzhong county town and drove out the Louzhong magistrate. Liu Daocan, governor of Yongzhou, adopted the method of pacification and resettlement, and moved part of the "Louzhong Man" to the Mianshui river basin. During the Daming period of Liu Song (457-464), Xiang Guanghou of the "Jianping (present-day Jianshi) Man" led his followers to attack the Jiangxia Gorge. Liu Song sent Mi Xiuzhi, governor of Jingzhou, and Wang Ji, prefect of Badong, to lead government troops to suppress them; Xiang Guanghou led his followers to move to the Qingjiang River and continued the struggle against the Liu Song regime. The Man peoples of the four commanderies of Badong, Jianping, Yidu, and Tianmen rose one after another, destroyed commanderies and counties, punished commandery governors and county magistrates, and "households fled and scattered, not one in a hundred remained." Although Liu Song continuously sent government troops to attack, they could not stop the resistance struggle of the Man people of the four commanderies.
During the Taishi period (465-471), the people of Jingzhou rose up one after another against the Liu Song regime. Xiang Zongtou, a descendant of Xiang Hong, who had once been enfeoffed as "King of the Yi of Jianping (commandery seat at present-day Enshi)" during the Daxing period of the Eastern Jin, also gathered followers in resistance. Shen Youzhi, internal secretary of Wuling, on the one hand sent troops to suppress them, and on the other "cut off their salt and rice," attempting to force Xiang Zongtou to submit. However, Shen Youzhi sent out troops many times, and each time was defeated by Xiang Zongtou's followers. Echoing the resistance struggle led by Xiang Zongtou, Tian Toumi of the Youxi Man (present-day Yongshun, Baojing, Longshan) also rose in resistance. Shen Youzhi vainly attempted to use the method of banning fish and salt to make them submit, but the result aroused strong opposition from the Wuxi Man. Tian Toumi, king of the Youxi Man, killed the Song envoy. The Song court wanted to extort ten million in Man taxes. Tian Toumi prepared to pay five million to settle the matter, but Shen Youzhi refused to compromise, causing Tian Toumi to die of rage. Tian Toumi's son Tian Du fled into the territory of the Liao people to seek protection. Tian Toumi's younger brother Tian Louhou succeeded to the title of "Man King." He launched an uprising of the Wuxi Man and attacked to the walls of Wuling commandery city. Later, Liu Song exploited the contradictions among the Youxi Man chieftains over internal rivalry for the kingship, lured Tian Louhou into a trap, imprisoned Tian Louhou, and summoned and enfeoffed Tian Du as king, causing this struggle against enslavement and oppression to collapse.
The resistance struggles of the peoples of various ethnic groups in Jianping, Wuling, and other commanderies accelerated the collapse of the Liu Song regime. Liu Song perished, and the Southern Qi regime replaced it. The Tujia people of Jianping, Wuling, and other commanderies successively launched struggles against the Xiao Qi regime. During the Jianyuan period (479-482), Tian Sipiao of the Youxi Man of Wuling Commandery led his followers against Qi, wishing to escape Xiao Qi control. Internal secretary Wang Wenhe led Qi troops deep into the heartland of Youxi. Tian Sipiao led troops to cut off their rear, and the Qi army was surrounded, unable to advance or retreat. Xiao Yi, Prince of Yuzhang, urgently sent Zhuang Ming, army advisor of the central troops, to lead more than 1,500 soldiers from Xiangzhou commandery troops to rescue them. Tian Sipiao continued to fight fiercely with the Qi army and unfortunately died after being hit by a crossbow bolt. His clansmen withdrew from Youyang city (present-day Baojing and Yongshun area) and persisted in struggle in the mountain valleys.
During the Yongming period of Xiao Qi (483-493), Xiang Zongtou of the Jianping Man and Tian Douqu of the Qianyang (present-day Qianjiang, Youyang) Man joined forces to oppose Qi control. They led more than five thousand people, built stockades in the mountain defiles, and confronted the Qi army. Wang Tunan, prefect of Badong, sent Sima Liu Sengshou to lead commandery troops to open a road along the mountains and attack their stockades. Xiang Zongtou, Tian Douqu, and others burned the stockades and retreated into the deep mountains and old forests, leaving the Qi army with nothing to show for it.
After the Eastern Jin, the Tujia people living on the borders of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou, together with the neighboring various Man peoples, expanded outward. By the time of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, their power developed rapidly, and their range of activity almost covered the provinces of Jing, Ying, Yong, Yu, and Si. During the Zhengguang period of Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei (520-525), after the peoples of various ethnic groups in the six garrisons, Guanlong, Hebei, and other places launched large-scale uprisings against Northern Wei, the "Man Left" of the Mian and Han river basins and the Tujia people living in the Xiajiang region rose in response and established separatist rule. "There were also the Ran, Xiang, and Tian clans, whose settlements were especially prosperous. The rest, the large ones with ten thousand families and the small ones with a thousand households, mutually elevated one another and usurped the titles of kings and marquises, garrisoned the Three Gorges, cut off and blocked the water routes, so that travelers between Jing and Shu sometimes had to take detours," making it very difficult for Northern Wei to aid Jingzhou from its nearby capital region. At the same time, it was also difficult for Northern Wei to send troops from Yizhou, Bazhou, and other places down the Yangtze River for rescue.
In the third year of Chengsheng of Emperor Yuan of Liang of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (554), Western Wei and Liang fiercely contended for the Xiajiang region. Qiao Yan, a Baxi person occupying Southern Liangzhou, sent people to Xinzhou (prefecture seat in present-day Fengjie area) to incite the Xinzhou Man to submit to Liang, which resulted in a split among the Man chieftains. The Man chieftains Xiang Zhenhou and Xiang Baibiao (also written Baihu) rose in response and were willing to accept Liang rule; but the Man chieftain Xiang Wuziwang opposed Liang control and led his followers to capture Xinzhou. Western Wei sent Li Qianzhe, He Ruodun, and others to lead heavy troops to suppress them. Facing the powerful offensive of Western Wei, Xiang Wuziwang, Xiang Zhenhou, and others had long since constructed defenses to block the Wei army from advancing south. The Wei army could not attack, so they also sent Fu Meng, a first-class Yellow Earth person from the White Beast Man, to lead his followers to occupy Baidi City. Li Qianzhe followed and stationed troops there to prevent the Xinzhou Man from rising again. However, the Wei soldiers exhausted their military provisions and used kudzu root as food. Many were unable to fight because of epidemic disease and could only hold out within Baidi City. At this time, Xiang Wuziwang joined with Xiang Baibiao to gather followers and besiege Xinzhou, capturing the prefecture city. Tian Wudu and Tian Wutang (also written Tian Tang) of the Qianyang Man (present-day Longshan, Baojing, Youyang, Xiushan, and other places) led their followers from south of the river to attack the gorge region, cut off the river route, and echoed Xiang Wuziwang and Xiang Baibiao. Later, Western Wei repeatedly sent reinforcements, and only then was this struggle against Wei control put down. During the Wucheng period of Northern Zhou (559-560), Ran Lingxian and Xiang Wuziwang of the Xinzhou Man continued to oppose Northern Dynasty control, again occupied Baidi City, and killed Li Changhua, the commandant with the title Kaifu. Although Northern Zhou repeatedly sent troops to suppress them, it was to no avail.
In the first year of Tianhe (566), Northern Zhou attempted to tighten its control over the Xiajiang region, thus arousing an even larger-scale resistance by the Xinzhou Man. They killed prefects and magistrates, called themselves kings and marquises, practiced separatist rule, and linked up with one another, with the Xiajiang as the center and connections extending more than two thousand li around. They opened fields and established defenses in the Kuixia region to resist Northern Zhou. The Shuiluo City guarded by Ran Lingxian was located north of the Wu Gorge, with high mountains standing like walls on all four sides and only a small path leading through. They built stockades, had ample military grain, elite troops, and excellent weapons. Beside it there was also the strategically located Shisheng City as an advance guard, ordered to be guarded by his elder brother Ran Longzhen and his son. He also sent his sons Ran Xili and Ran Nanwang to strategically important places south of the river, where they established ten cities, and Ran Sangong built more than thirty cities, forming a pincer-like configuration. They also remotely connected with the Cenyang Man for support, so the Northern Zhou army did not dare attack rashly. South of the river, Xiang Wuziwang guarded Shimo City (present-day Badong), facing the river to the north and surrounded by steep mountains on three sides, and it was called a strategic pass. His son Xiang Baosheng stationed at Shuangcheng, sixty li north of Shimo City, and opened fields in the area of Mingyue Mountain (ten li northwest of present-day Badong County), obtaining military grain. Their weapons were also excellent: "there were iron spearheads several zhang long, which after several hundred years showed little damage, called 'King Xiang's spears,'" and they echoed Ran Lingxian.
Northern Zhou sent Lu Teng and Sima Yi to lead a large number of officers and soldiers, advancing toward the Xiajiang by several routes by water and land from Tangkou. One route first took the various cities south of the river defended by Ran Xili, Ran Chenggong, and others. Then they bought over Ran Boli and Ran Anxi, who had conflicts with Ran Lingxian, to serve as guides, and used the promise of allowing Ran Longzhen to replace Ran Lingxian's position as bait. Ran Longzhen and his son then led troops straight to seize the Shisheng guard city beside Shuiluo, leaving Shuiluo City isolated and without aid. Then with a large army they routed Ran Lingxian's elite followers and occupied Shuiluo City. Another Northern Zhou army advanced to take the various cities guarded by Ran Sangong south of the river, vainly attempting to induce Xiang Wuziwang and Xiang Baosheng's forces to surrender, but was refused by the various Xiang. The Northern Zhou army used the tactic of "building a surrounding palisade to block their escape route" to encircle the various Xiang. Xiang Wuziwang and Xiang Baosheng resisted the Northern Zhou army at Shimo City and Shuangcheng, and finally died heroically. In the present-day Tujia areas there are still temples of King Xiang the Heavenly Son or temples of King Xiang, sacrificing to Xiang Wuziwang (in historical records sometimes called Xiang Tianwang). In the sixth year of Tianhe of Northern Zhou (571), the eastern Sichuan Man chieftains Ran Zuxi (also written "Xi") and Ran Longxiang again rose in resistance against Yuwen Yong's control. Northern Zhou sent Zhao Yin to lead troops to suppress them.
The twenty-year struggle against control by Xiang Wuziwang, Ran Lingxian, and others successively failed, and the gorge region was finally occupied by Northern Zhou.