A Brief History of the Tujia — Introduction
Introduction. Within China's unified family of ethnic groups lives an ethnic minority with a long history and a relatively developed culture — the Tujia. Over the long course of historical development, the Tujia people, with their diligence and wisdom, cleared the way through hardships, developed the vast border region of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou, and created a splendid and colorful ethnic culture. In resistance against the ruling classes of successive dynasties...
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Introduction
In our country's unified family of nationalities, there is an ethnic minority with a long history and a relatively developed culture—the Tujia. In the long course of historical development, the Tujia people, with their diligence and wisdom, blazed trails through difficulties, developed the vast border region of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou, and created a splendid and colorful ethnic culture. In struggles against the ruling classes of successive dynasties and against foreign invaders, the Tujia people fought bravely, shed blood, and made important contributions to the founding and development of our great motherland.
The Tujia are one of the ethnic minorities in our country with a population of over one million. In a 1953 survey within present-day Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, there were 194,000 people, mainly distributed in Longshan, Yongshun, Baojing, and other counties; data for other areas are unknown. In the more than forty years that followed, with the implementation of the state's ethnic policies, some people in the ethnic areas of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou restored their Tujia ethnicity. According to the fifth national census in 2000, the present Tujia population is 8,028,133, of whom 2.639 million are in Hunan Province, 2.177 million in Hubei Province, 1.432 million in Guizhou Province, and 1.422 million in Chongqing Municipality. There are also some Tujia scattered throughout the country.
The Tujia are concentrated in the border zone of the four provinces and municipalities of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou, centered on several areas comprising two prefectures, two regions, and two cities, which geographically belong to the Wuling Mountain area. The two prefectures are the Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture in Hunan Province and the Enshi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture in Hubei Province; the two regions refer to the Tongren region of Guizhou and the Qianjiang region of Sichuan Province before 1997 (this part now belongs to Chongqing Municipality); the two cities refer to Zhangjiajie City in Hunan Province and Yichang City in Hubei Province (some counties or autonomous counties). The distribution of the Tujia is mainly in the Wuling Mountains, secondarily in the Wu Mountains, and again in the Jing and Daba Mountains north of the Yangtze River. Centered on longitude 110°E and latitude 30°N, it extends east to Shimen, Cili, Taoyuan, and Yuanling Counties in the Li and Yuan River basins, west to Fuling and Wanzhou Cities in Chongqing, south to Jiangkou and Sinan Counties in the Tongren region of Guizhou, and north to Wushan in Chongqing and Xingshan County in Hubei. On this vast land there are more than 50 counties, cities, and districts in the three provinces of Hunan, Hubei, and Guizhou and Chongqing Municipality; at present, ethnic regional autonomy has been realized in 25 counties and districts. Among them are 2 Tujia and Miao autonomous prefectures (altogether governing 16 counties and cities), 5 Tujia and Miao autonomous counties, 4 Tujia autonomous counties, 40 Tujia autonomous townships, and 41 jointly autonomous Tujia townships. They are the Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture in Hunan Province, governing 8 counties and cities: Longshan County, Yongshun County, Baojing County, Huayuan County, Guzhang County, Fenghuang County, Luxi County, and Jishou City; Sangzhi County, Cili County, Yongding District, and Wulingyuan District of Zhangjiajie City; Shimen County and Taoyuan County of Changde City; Yuanling County and
Zhijiang County, Xupu County, and Mayang County of Huaihua City. Enshi City, Lichuan City, Jianshi County, Badong County, Xuan'en County, Xianfeng County, Hefeng County, and Laifeng County under the Enshi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture of Hubei Province; the two Tujia autonomous counties of Changyang and Wufeng in Yichang City, with mixed-inhabited areas including Xingshan County, Yichang County, Zigui County, and Zhicheng City. Shizhu Tujia Autonomous County in Chongqing Municipality, the three Tujia and Miao autonomous counties of Xiushan, Youyang, and Qianjiang (changed to Qianjiang District in 2000), and Pengshui Miao and Tujia Autonomous County; mixed-inhabited areas include Wushan, Wuxi, Yunyang, Fengjie, Wanzhou, and Fuling counties and cities. Yanhe Tujia Autonomous County and Yinjiang Tujia and Miao Autonomous County in Guizhou Province; mixed-inhabited areas include Dejiang, Jiangkou, Shiqian, and Sinan Counties, Tongren City, and Songtao Miao Autonomous County.
Today's Tujia inhabited areas largely coincide with the territories governed by tusi during the Yongzheng-era bureaucratization of native offices in the Qing Dynasty, being the administrative lands of the five major tusi of Huguang (Yongshun Si, Baojing Si, Rongmei Si, Sanmao Si, and Shinan Si) and the Youyang Si and Shizhu Si of Sichuan; the edges of tusi territories were mostly areas of mixed residence of Tujia, Miao, Dong, and Han peoples. However, from the overall distribution of ethnic groups in the border region of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou, the Tujia distribution is still relatively concentrated.
The area inhabited by the Tujia is a hilly and mountainous region of interconnected streams and caves (dong), with relatively high terrain; more than half of the area is at an elevation of about 1,000 meters. The famous Wuling Mountain Range runs from southwest to northeast, passing through Guzhang, Baojing, Yongshun, Zhangjiajie, and other counties and cities within Hunan; its branches stretch across the whole of northwestern Hunan, with spectacular peaks competing in beauty and majestic momentum. The Bamian Mountain, stretching for more than a hundred li between Hunan and Chongqing, and the Qiyue Mountain, standing between Chongqing and Hubei, face each other with towering, steep peaks; beyond one mountain there is another, and within one mountain another is nested, with layer upon layer of ridges, a magnificent sight. The main peak of the Badagong Mountains—Doupeng Mountain—reaches an elevation of 1,894.4 meters, 600 meters higher than Zhurong Peak, the highest peak of Mount Heng, the Southern Great Mountain; it is vast and verdant, with clouds and mist floating over it. Among the encircling mountains flow the You River, Yu River, Li River, and Qing River; with mountains around and waters winding, they form streams and caves. At the foot of the mountains are low-lying basins, on the slopes are terraced fields layer upon layer, and on the summits are broad platforms, composing a most magnificent picture. One of the historically famous Five Streams—the You River—has one branch originating in the northeastern part of Xuan'en, flowing southwest through Laifeng, Youyang, and Xiushan, then southeast through Longshan, Baojing, Yongshun, and Guzhang, until it joins the Yuan River at Yuanling. The Qing River (the ancient Yi River) originates in the Qiyue Mountain of Lichuan, flows east through Enshi, Jianshi, Badong, and Changyang, and enters the main stream of the Yangtze at Yidu. The Tangya River and the Yu River both originate in Lichuan, flow southwest through Qianjiang, join the Wu River at Pengshui, and then empty into the Yangtze. The Dan River originates in Hefeng, flows through Sangzhi and Cili, and joins the Li River. The Wu River rises in western Hunan and empties into the Yuan River via Luxi. In the Hunan-Hubei-Chongqing-Guizhou border area, rivers crisscross and streams interlace, holding rich hydropower resources; some are navigable by boat, and some can be dammed for power generation.
The Hunan-Hubei-Chongqing-Guizhou border area where the Tujia are distributed has a warm climate. Elevations are mostly between 1,000 and 1,500 meters; because elevations vary, temperatures differ considerably from place to place. Generally it is warm in winter and cool in summer, with an annual average temperature of about 15°C, a maximum temperature of 35°C, and a minimum temperature of only minus 5°C. The frost-free period each year ranges from about 100 to 240 days. Rainfall is abundant, humidity is high, and average precipitation reaches 1,300–1,440 millimeters. There is much fog, and the climate basically belongs to the southern low-temperature type, suitable for the development of agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry.
The Tujia area has beautiful scenery and extremely rich plant resources. In the border area of Sangzhi and Hefeng, between Longshan and Xiushan, and within Lichuan, Wufeng, and Zhangjiajie, there are large areas covered by primeval forest; this is one of the concentrated areas in our country rich in temperate-subtropical deciduous tree species, and also one of the rare green treasure houses in the world, and has been listed as a key plant protection area in our country. The dove tree (Davidia involucrata), praised by botanists as a relict plant and known as the "Chinese dove tree," actually forms large mixed communities here. The dawn redwood, long known as a "living fossil of biology," numbers more than 5,000 mother trees with a diameter at breast height of over 20 centimeters in Lichuan County alone. In Luota, Longshan County, there are three ancient large dawn redwoods, one of which is 46 meters tall with a girth of 5.8 meters, entwined by two ancient vines, which the Tujia people call "Two Dragons Embracing a Pillar." Dozens of tree species here, such as ginkgo, Torreya grandis, Liriodendron chinense, red-flowered magnolia, Bretschneidera sinensis, Chinese yew, and Manglietia, are ancient or rare and precious species. Zhangjiajie City in particular is densely forested, with towering peaks and a forest of grotesque rocks; as our country's first national forest park, it attracts millions of Chinese and foreign tourists.
The economy of the Tujia area basically belongs to the mountain agricultural and forestry economic crop type.
The Tujia people originally engaged in fishing and hunting, and practiced slash-and-burn farming on the mountains; later they mainly worked terraced fields and forestry sidelines. Crops were diverse: grain crops included rice, corn, potatoes, and wheat; cash crops included tung oil, tea-seed oil, raw lacquer, tea, flue-cured tobacco, ramie, cotton, indigo, rapeseed oil, and sugar beets. Among these, income from tung oil, raw lacquer, tea, tea-seed oil, and flue-cured tobacco accounted for a considerable proportion. The "Xiuyou" oil of the Youyang-Xiushan area, the "Golden Tung Oil" of Xiangxi, and the "Golden Silk Tung Oil" of Maodong in Laifeng were not only famous throughout the country but also enjoyed high prestige on the international market. In the Maoba area on the border of Lichuan and Xianfeng, there was a lacquer called "Baqi," hailed worldwide as the "king of raw lacquer." The green tea of Guzhang, the black tea of Hefeng, Sangzhi, and Enshi, and the "Songzhen" tea of Wufeng were also renowned far and near and sold well at home and abroad. Precious medicinal herbs included dozens of varieties such as fritillary, eucommia, gastrodia, coptis, angelica, codonopsis, and musk. Among them, the coptis of Shizhu County and the golden gardenia and papaya of Changyang County enjoyed a certain reputation on domestic and international markets. The giant salamanders produced in Sangzhi, Laifeng, Xuan'en, Hefeng, Youyang, Xiushan, Fenghuang, and other places were precious and highly nutritious. Luxi, Badong, Changyang, Jianshi, and other places abounded in citrus, seedless mandarin oranges, and kiwifruit. The Tujia areas had vast timber forest acreage, with major trees including fir, pine, cypress, nanmu, and Chinese tallow; after logging, they were mostly floated downstream on log rafts along the You River, Qing River, and Wu River to Changde, Wuhan, Yichang, Fuling, Wanxian, and other places to support national construction. Mineral resources here were also extremely rich; dozens of types had been discovered, including coal, iron, mercury, copper, lead, zinc, antimony, sulfur, phosphorus, manganese, vanadium, and salt. These abundant treasures were important resources for our country's socialist modernization drive.
The Tujia language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. It has no written script of its own, and Chinese characters are used universally. Because the Tujia lived in the interior and had long and frequent contact with the Han Chinese, the vast majority of Tujia today speak Chinese. Along the Qing River basin, a large number of place names and ancient songs passed down among the Tujia still retain Tujia vocabulary. Along the You River basin and in a few villages in Luxi County, about 200,000 people speak the Tujia language, some of whom are also fluent in Chinese.
The Tujia are an ethnic group with a long history. More than two thousand years ago, the Tujia ancestors cleared the vast mountainous areas between Ba and Liang, opened land for cultivation, and lived and multiplied there. Although they long suffered discrimination and oppression from feudal rulers, their forebears always endured hardship, climbed mountains and braved dangers, practiced slash-and-burn farming, and engaged in production, striving to gradually turn the wastelands on the borders of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou into fertile fields, bringing mountain-area production levels gradually close to those of nearby Han areas.
The Tujia are a brave people, and their ancestors were known for valuing martial prowess and being skilled in battle. Rulers of the Tang and Song dynasties once conscripted Tujia soldiers for service. In the Ming dynasty, soldiers from Huguang fought against Japanese pirates and won the honor of "first in military merit in the Southeast." The Tujia people have a glorious history of struggle; from the Han and Tang through the Ming and Qing, they participated many times in major peasant uprisings against feudalism. The White Lotus uprising in Changyang, Badong, and Laifeng during the Qing dynasty once shook the feudal rulers of the time. In the "Youyang Church Case," the "Shinan Church Case," and the anti-church armed uprisings in Changyang, Wufeng, and Badong, the Tujia people defied brute force, persisted in struggle, and displayed intense patriotic fervor. Especially under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, Tujia sons and daughters fought one after another and took part in the New Democratic Revolution. During the Second Revolutionary Civil War from 1927 to 1937, the Tujia people, with boundless enthusiasm, participated in the great struggle to create the Hunan-Hubei-Western and Hunan-Hubei-Sichuan-Guizhou revolutionary base areas, making major contributions to the Chinese revolution. The Tujia people long persisted in unyielding struggle against the Kuomintang reactionaries, writing a glorious page in the history of the Chinese revolution.
The Tujia are a people rich in wisdom and skilled in singing and dancing. The Tujia ancestors long lived in the great mountain regions on the borders of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou. In their struggles with nature and society, they created abundant material wealth and a beautiful ethnic culture. Among these, the Zhuzhi songs, mountain songs, hand-waving dance, funeral dance, and Tujia flower bedcovers are full of rich Tujia style.
The Tujia ancestors lived in areas bordering the most developed region of the Central Plains Huaxia culture. In ancient times this was also a corridor through which feudal dynasties reached the southern and southwestern ethnic minority regions. They came into contact with Central Plains Han culture relatively early, and most of their upper class long maintained close subordinate relations with feudal dynasties, so they were greatly influenced by Han culture. Especially after the replacement of native officials with centrally appointed officials, large numbers of Han people moved into Tujia areas, and the Tujia absorbed a great deal of Han culture; their society, economy, and culture all made notable progress. In towns and villages with convenient transportation, the economic and cultural life of the Tujia people was relatively close to that of the local Han. Therefore, the Tujia are an ethnic minority closest to the Han and relatively quick to progress.
The hardworking and simple Tujia people created their own history and propelled the continuous development of society in the border region of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou. However, because of the cruel oppression and exploitation of rulers through the ages, before the founding of New China the great majority of Tujia people suffered discrimination for a long time, and their ethnic identity was not recognized.
After the founding of New China, the central and local governments sent visiting groups and organized ethnic identification work teams to visit and investigate places such as Yongshun, Longshan, Baojing, Guzhang, Sangzhi, Laifeng, Hefeng, Enshi, Changyang, Youyang, and Xiushan. In January 1957, the State Council approved the recognition of the Tujia as a single ethnic minority of our country. In September 1957, the Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, composed mainly of Tujia and Miao, was established. From then on, the Tujia people enjoyed the right to be masters of their own affairs within the socialist motherland. Since the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Party, relevant departments, after careful investigation and study, restored the Tujia ethnic identity of some people. In May 1980, the Laifeng Tujia Autonomous County and Hefeng Tujia Autonomous County were established in the Enshi region of Hubei. In November 1983, the Youyang Miao and Tujia Autonomous County and Xiushan Tujia and Miao Autonomous County of Sichuan Province were established. In December of the same year, the former Laifeng and Hefeng Tujia Autonomous Counties were abolished, and the Hubei Exi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture was established, thereby greatly mobilizing the enthusiasm of the Tujia people to open up new prospects for socialist modernization.
For more than fifty years, the people of all ethnic groups—Tujia, Miao, Dong, Hui, Han, and others—in the border region of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou, under the brilliant illumination of the Party's ethnic policies, achieved tremendous results in socialist revolution and construction and brought earth-shaking changes to their own lives. Now, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, the Tujia people are riding the east wind of the great development of the western region, uplifting their spirits, and working with full confidence and diligence to build a modern socialist country with Chinese characteristics, striving to achieve new results.