Tujia Folk Beliefs and Culture — Tuwang Worship (Part 2)
2. The Sanfu Gods of Laifeng and Other Places in Western Hubei. The Sanfu Gods are also three chieftain deities. "Fu" means "pacify" or "proclaim and pacify," both titles of chieftain rank. In Laifeng County and the Guandian and Jingyang townships of Jianshi County in western Hubei, and in Youyang, Sichuan (now Chongqing), there were once Sanfu Temples, also called Sanfu Palaces, enshrining the Sanfu Gods. The Tongzhi-era "Laifeng County Gazetteer" of the Qing says: "The Sanfu Palace — one at Daheba..."
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2. The Sanfu Gods of Laifeng and other places in western Hubei
The Sanfu Gods are also three Tusi gods. Fu means to pacify, or xuanfu (pacification commissioner); both are titles at the Tusi rank. In Laifeng County and the Guandian and Jingyang townships of Jianshi County in western Hubei, and in Youyang in Sichuan (present-day Chongqing), there were once Sanfu temples, also called Sanfu palaces, enshrining the Sanfu Gods. The Tongzhi-era Laifeng County Gazetteer of the Qing dynasty says: "There are Sanfu palaces, one at Daheba and one at Jiusichang. As for the Sanfu Gods, tradition says they were Tusi of three surnames who during their lives practiced benevolent governance, and the people could not forget them, so shrines were established and they were worshipped in the village altars; they were quite efficacious, and prayers in times of flood or drought were always answered." The three Tusi gods enshrined in Sanfu temples differed from place to place. In Youyang they were of the Ran, Yang, and Tian surnames. An Overview of the Youyang Tujia and Miao Autonomous County says: "In both town and countryside of Youyang there are Sanfu temples. Tradition says they enshrine three Tujia ancestors, one of the Ran surname, one of the Yang surname, and one of the Tian surname (or some say the An surname). All three were early Tusi of Sizhou and Bozhou, all serving as Xuanfu commissioners, and because they were virtuous toward the people, shrines to the three surnames were established and worshipped together."
The Sanfu temples of Jingyang and Guandian in Jianshi enshrined Tusi of the Tian, Xiang, and Huang (or Liu) surnames. Each surname took turns making offerings through its direct-line relatives, one family each year. In local worship of the Sanfu Gods, meat and vegetarian foods were placed in earthen jars and bowls and set before the divine images, called "rations" for sustaining the "soldier-generals." The local Tujia regarded the Sanfu Gods as generals defending the locality, and because they could command troops against enemies, they were worshipped. It is said that this meat and vegetarian food placed in jars and bowls kept its color unchanged and never spoiled for three to five years.
3. The Da Er San Gods of western Hubei
The Da Er San Gods are three Tusi gods with the Tian surname as the principal worshippers, mainly popular in the Hefeng area of western Hubei. The Da Er San Gods refer to the three honored deities of Tian, Qin, and Xiang. Because the Tian surname was the principal worshipper, the Tian-surname Tujia regarded them as family gods.
In worshipping these three honored deities, only spirit tablets were set up, with no divine images. The Da Er San Gods governed all fortunes and misfortunes in the human world, and the local Tujia had to worship them in turn, household by household. During the sacrifice they killed pigs and sheep as offerings, and also beat gongs and drums and sang and danced to entertain the gods. The Tu teacher also performed shamanic rituals, acting as a god descending to gnaw on bowls and cups, walk on oil cauldrons, and so on. The Hefeng Prefecture Gazetteer records: "The Da Er San Gods are the family gods of the Tian clan. Three were carved in wood, and they were extraordinarily efficacious; those seeking medical treatment or asking about longevity came and went in an endless stream on the roads. Where the gods were, people were healthy and goods abundant, and the whole clan, household by household, set dates to welcome and worship them. When the period was about to end, they prepared wine and sweet liquor and sealed off sheep and pigs as offerings, calling it the Joyous Gods; otherwise great misfortune would surely follow. At the sacrifice, drums and gongs clamored, with Miao songs and barbarian dances, like a theatrical performance. When the god descended, he would surely borrow a person's body to speak; that person would leap up boldly, gnawing bowls and cups as if chewing sweet cakes, treading on foot-long iron, and walking on oil cauldrons, calm and without a trace of difficulty—and so it remains to this day."
II. Characteristics of Tuwang Worship
Tuwang worship was mainly a product of the several-hundred-year Tusi system from the Yuan dynasty to the Qing dynasty's replacement of native officials with centrally appointed officials (gaitu guiliu). Although the Tuwang gods enshrined in some Tuwang temples can be traced back to before the Yuan dynasty, they were also ancestral forebears of great-surname Tusi, and were still based on Tusi worship. Therefore, Tuwang worship mainly flourished during the historical period from the Yuan dynasty to the Qing dynasty's gaitu guiliu. Before this, what mainly prevailed in Tujia areas were Baidi Tianwang worship and Babu Dawang worship. After gaitu guiliu, Tuwang worship gradually died out, replaced by ancestor worship transmitted by the Han Chinese after the ban on "Han entering the caves" was lifted. Ancestral halls were established according to surname, one hall for one god, and shrines were set up at home to worship direct-line ancestors, forming an ancestor-veneration consciousness similar to that of the Han Chinese, with year-round ancestor sacrifices to pray for blessings on descendants. Among the Tujia, every clan had to set up ancestral spirit tablets; otherwise, whoever's family was considered to have no ancestors would have all manner of wandering ghosts and wild spirits able to invade and cause mischief at any time, and the master of that house would surely suffer misfortune. Tujia ancestor worship was very strict: besides sacrifices at festivals, there was also silent worship before meals in ordinary times, and the head of the family had to recite sacrificial words. The sacrificial words were usually: "Ancestors of three generations, close and distant kin, old and young deceased—all are invited together."
Looking comprehensively at several hundred years of Tujia Tuwang worship, we can find the following characteristics:
1. Tuwang worship developed from primitive clan or tribal ancestor worship, still retaining a clan character, but also adding a territorial character. The Tuwang was not only the ancestor god of a certain surname but also a deity commonly worshipped by the Tujia people of the Tusi jurisdiction represented by the Tuwang. The Tuwang gods enshrined in different Tusi jurisdictions differed.
2. The deities enshrined in Tuwang temples were always three gods of three surnames. This shows that ever since the Tujia formed a community through the alliance of the five surnames of the Red and Black caves, there always existed the phenomenon of unity of opposites: the relative independence of the major surname groups and the union of the major surname groups. The three-surname gods were respectively the ancestors of the three-surname Tujia in a specific region, and at the same time were deities commonly worshipped by the Tujia of various surnames in that region. The arrangement of three-surname gods in one temple is a condensed reflection of the historical process by which clans merged into tribes and then into an ethnic group among the Tujia.
3. Tuwang worship mainly flourished in the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, and various types of Tuwang temples were commonly established in Tujia areas. Local gazetteers and other materials record much about this.
The Guangxu 33rd year (1907) Guzhang Pingting Gazetteer records: "In Tujia custom, each village has a hand-waving hall. Every year from the third to the fifth or sixth day of the first lunar month, at night gongs are beaten and drums struck; men and women gather, swaying and shouting, called 'hand-waving,' to drive away ill omens. ... Only when a person dies are monks and Daoists not used; only the Tu teacher performs rituals. The gods are the old Xuanwei Sheba such as Peng Wang, Tian Dahan, and Xiang Laoguan; people say they were all ministers of Peng Wang."
The Daoguang 4th year (1824) Fenghuang Ting Gazetteer records: "As for establishing shrines for sacrifice, only those with numerous clan members had them."
The Guangxu 4th year (1878) Longshan County Gazetteer records: "The Tujia people sacrifice to the former Tusi gods. There were formerly halls called 'hand-waving' halls, where the spirit tablet of a certain Tusi god was enshrined and offerings of meat and sweet wine were set out. When the time came, at nightfall, crowds of men and women entered together to make offerings; when finished, they draped themselves in five-colored cloth, covered their heads with brocade scarves, beat drums and sounded gongs, danced and sang, and competed for several nights before stopping. The time was sometimes the first month, sometimes the third month, sometimes the fifth month, varying. When singing, men and women joined hands and danced lightly forward and back, hence it was called 'hand-waving.' Tradition says that a certain Tusi in the former Ming dynasty was ordered to campaign against a certain county town in Guangxi, whose defense was strong and could not be taken despite repeated attacks. At the time, a certain army camp was outside the south gate of the city, so he ordered his soldiers to half dress as women, link arms and sing loudly in decadent tunes; thereupon the defenders all gathered to watch, and were stirred by the songs, losing their firm resolve. He then led elite troops secretly to another gate, leaped in, and thus took the city. After returning, this was performed as a dance, also carrying the meaning of celebrating military exploits. However, as vulgar customs spread, some even indulged to the point of licentiousness and forgot to return."
Survey materials from "Tujia Language and Customs of the Maodong Commune in Laifeng": "The Tujia believe in the Tuwang and have established Tuwang temples. The whole commune has six Tuwang temples, enshrining Duke Peng, Elder Xiang, and Good Man Tian."
Survey materials from "Tujia Customs of Liantian Township, Yangliu District, Badong": "From the third to the fifteenth day of the first lunar month, on odd-numbered days, men and women, old and young, went to the hand-waving ground in front of the Tuwang temple to dance the hand-waving dance; people came from a hundred li away to dance. There were those gambling, trading, talking, chatting, laughing, and singing—very lively. A great flag over ten feet long was also set up, and incense, candles, and paper were burned while dancing the hand-waving dance, paying respects to the Tuwang."
The Yongshun County Gazetteer says: "After the Peng clan took charge of Xizhou, each village and stockade established a 'Tuwang temple,' and when dancing the hand-waving dance they also honored the Tusi king."
An Overview of the Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture says: "In Tujia areas of Xiangxi there were also 'Xiangwang temples,' enshrining Xiangwang Tianzi; in some places 'Tuwang temples' were built, enshrining three gods: Duke Peng, Good Man Tian, and Elder Xiang. Every year from the first to the fifteenth day of the first lunar month and on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, each village set its own regular date to sacrifice to the Tuwang, and this was the most solemn occasion."
The Xianfeng County Gazetteer says: "At Lijiawan in Zhongbao, Dagou in Qujiang, and Changcao in Lishuba, there were also Sanfo (Sanfu) temples, Sanfo (Sanfu) palaces, and Basan temples, enshrining the Da Er San Gods, namely the three Tuwang Qin, Tian, and Xiang."
Tuwang worship is a cultural phenomenon unique to Tujia areas. Politically, Tuwang worship was a product of the political system combining the clan-lord system and tribal military alliance; religiously, Tuwang worship contained elements of both ancestor-god worship and territorial-god worship.
III. Surviving Customs of Tuwang Worship
After gaitu guiliu, with the abolition of the Tusi system, Tuwang worship gradually died out, but its influence was not completely eliminated, and some customs derived from Tuwang worship are still passed down.
The Tujia festival custom of celebrating an early New Year is related to Tuwang worship. The Tujia celebrate the New Year one day or several days earlier than the Han Chinese. In a month of thirty days, when the Han celebrate on the thirtieth of the twelfth lunar month, the Tujia celebrate on the twenty-ninth; in a month of twenty-nine days, when the Han celebrate on the twenty-ninth, the Tujia celebrate on the twenty-eighth, and some on the twenty-seventh or twenty-sixth, so it is called "rushing the New Year" or "adjusting the New Year." There are several explanations for the Tujia custom of celebrating an early New Year, and some are related to the Tuwang: one says that when the Guest King fought the Tuwang, the Tuwang heard that the Guest King planned to take advantage of the New Year's Eve on the thirtieth to launch a surprise attack on the Tujia barracks, so he had the Tujia soldiers celebrate the New Year one day early and then make preparations to meet the Guest King in battle. Because the Tujia soldiers had made full preparations in advance, the Guest King not only failed in his surprise attack but fell into an ambush and was beaten into a wretched flight. Later, this formed the Tujia custom of celebrating the New Year early. In Yongshun and Baojing, when the Tujia celebrate the early New Year, every household cuts several branches of toon wood and inserts them on the main gate and hall door, symbolizing the wooden spears of the Tujia soldiers of that year. At that time the Tujia had no swords, spears, or weapons, so the Tuwang told everyone to use trees fitted with bamboo spikes as weapons. When the Tujia have their reunion meal, they sit only on three sides, leaving the side facing the main gate empty. It is said this is related to leaving one side open to watch for the enemy in those years. At New Year the Tujia eat long strips of large chunks of meat, called New Year meat. It is said this was a dish made in those years to guard against emergencies, so that each person could take a piece and eat while walking, to go meet the Guest King in battle. Even more meaningfully, before the Tujia reunion meal, the head of the household takes a fire-blowing tube and blows it all around the house. It is said this symbolizes sounding the military horn for an emergency assembly.
There is another explanation, also related to commemorating the Tuwang's battles, though this time the war was no longer a Tujia-Han war but a war to resist foreign invasion of China, with patriotic significance. During the Jiajing reign of the Ming dynasty, Tian Jiufeng, the Rongmei Tusi, was ordered to the Zhejiang front to campaign against Japanese pirates. It was just at year's end, and the pirates wanted to take advantage of the New Year to launch a surprise attack on the Tujia barracks led by Tian Jiufeng. To smash the enemy's plot, Tian Jiufeng ordered his officers and soldiers to celebrate the New Year one day early, and on New Year's Eve to make battle preparations and stand ready. As a result, when the pirates attacked, the Tujia officers and soldiers suddenly appeared fully armed, catching the pirates off guard and sending them fleeing in defeat. Later, to commemorate the Tuwang's merits, the custom of celebrating the New Year one day early arose. It seems that the Tujia custom of celebrating an early New Year is indeed related to war.
Whether a war under the Tusi system could be won depended to a great extent on the Tusi's decisions and command. Therefore, the early New Year custom involving wars of the Tusi period necessarily included worship of the Tusi. In fact, the above early New Year customs all carry the meaning of commemorating Tusi gods. The early New Year custom already existed in Tusi times. The Qing dynasty Hefeng Prefecture Gazetteer records: "Tujia households of the Qin and Tian surnames, during Tusi times, sacrificed to the gods and celebrated the New Year on the day before New Year's Eve; many still follow this."
The lion dance of the Tujia Spring Festival also carries the meaning of commemorating the Tuwang. The lion is a symbol of festivity, joy, and good fortune in the festival activities of all ethnic groups in our country. The Tujia call the lion the Tujia lion, and legend says the Tujia lion is transformed from the Tusi king's pug dog and can bring people blessings. The Tujia lion indeed resembles a pug in shape, with long hair on its head and a small, exquisitely delicate body. Dancing the Tujia lion carries the meaning of warding off evil and praying for a good harvest. The spoken lines recited during the lion dance express these meanings: "Three great roars shake heaven and earth, plague and evil gods have nowhere to hide; the five grains flourish and the harvest is good, the country is rich and the people strong for ten thousand years."
The Sixth of the Sixth was originally a Han Chinese festival. On this day there were customs such as airing clothes and books, viewing the grain shoots, and inviting the aunt. The Yanjing Suishi Ji says: "In the capital, on the sixth day of the sixth month, clothes and books are aired out, which is said to prevent insects and moths." After the Sixth of the Sixth festival was transmitted to Tujia areas, new content was implanted into it, and it became a festival commemorating the Tuwang. The Tujia have various explanations for the Sixth of the Sixth. One says the Sixth of the Sixth is the birthday of the sun; when the Tuwang was alive, he presided over ceremonies sacrificing to the sun and celebrating its birthday, bestowed wine and food on his subjects, and also put his python robes and brocade garments out under the blazing sun to dry. The common people also on this day aired clothes and fur, sacrificed to the sun, and prayed for a good harvest. These customs are basically a continuation of the Han Chinese Sixth of the Sixth customs, only given new interpretations and infused with Tuwang worship consciousness.
One account holds that the sixth day of the sixth lunar month is the birthday of the Tuwang (native king), turning the sun's "birthday" into the Tuwang's birthday—a case of misattribution. This kind of grafting or transplanting also reflects the Tujia people's worship of the Tuwang. The claim that the Tuwang was born on the sixth day of the sixth month is mainly popular among the Tujia in the Longshan and Yongshun areas. Legend has it that when the Tuwang was born on the sixth day of the sixth month, his family was very poor and could not afford to host a banquet. It happened that mountain folk returned from hunting, and everyone gave the wild boars they had caught to the Tuwang's family, who then used the wild boars to entertain the villagers. From then on, on the sixth day of the sixth month, there was the ritual of using "wild boar" to celebrate the Tuwang's birthday. Of course, the "wild boar" used in the festival is symbolic. On the sixth day of the sixth month, Tujia people, organized by village, release a pig specially raised for blessing at the Tuwang Shrine, letting it forage on the mountain, and then people catch the pig and carry it back. The pig-slaughtering ritual to sacrifice to the Tuwang is presided over by the poorest household in the village. When dividing the meat, every household must give grain and rice to this household. Clearly, this is a continuation of the ancient practice of people helping the poor Tuwang's family celebrate his birth with hunted game. In fact, this contains the Tujia ancestors' custom of hunting in groups, dividing the meat, and giving a share to all who were present. The Tujia surnamed Qin, Tian, and Wang celebrate the sixth day of the sixth month by sacrificing to the Tuwang and celebrating his birthday; they do not kill pigs but kill cattle. During the sacrifice, a cattle head is offered on the altar. The Tian, Qin, and Wang surnames line up in eight rows—four rows for the Tian surname and two rows each for the Qin and Wang surnames. The people in the first row conduct the sacrificial ritual: killing the cattle, burning incense, burning paper, setting off firecrackers, and praying for a good year, longevity, and fertility. After the sacrifice, each row divides the beef and takes it home.
There is another account that the sixth day of the sixth month is the day of calamity for the Tusi Qin Hou. On this day, Tujia people air out all kinds of clothing, called "drying the dragon robe," and believe that "drying the dragon robe" is to commemorate the Tuwang Qin Hou. Qin Hou was a real historical figure, and his deeds are half legend and half historical fact. Qin Li, courtesy name Wenjin (1311–1371), was a native of Maogang in Cili County, Huguang (present-day Dayong and adjacent areas). His distant ancestor was Qin Erjian of the Eastern Han, who fled to Shichuan (present-day Enshi) and other places after failing in a rebellion as leader of the "Louzhong Man." During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, his descendant Qin Ruxian served as Commander-in-Chief of Shizhou. Qin Li was the twenty-ninth-generation descendant of Qin Ruxian; his father was Qin Tianyou. His family moved from Enshi to Maliao, then to Shimen, and later to Maogang.
Legend has it that when Qin Hou was born, he had two fleshy dragons on his back, and the villagers all believed he was a true dragon son of heaven. Qin Hou lost both parents in childhood and was raised by his older sister. At the end of the Yuan Dynasty, Qin Hou, as a "chieftain," led his followers to drive out the hereditary Tusi Wu Jing and his son Wu Yao, and later supported half of the Han regime of Chen Youliang. When Chen Youliang was defeated, Zhu Yuanzhang occupied the Huguang region. In the third year of Hongwu of the Ming Dynasty, Qin Hou gathered the "Eighteen Cave Man" of Dayong, Sangzhi, Yongshun, Hefeng, and other places to rebel, and captured the city of Cili Prefecture. Zhu Yuanzhang sent a large army to pursue and suppress them. Qin Hou led his troops in stubborn resistance but was finally defeated and retreated to the Maogang area of Dayong due to being outnumbered. Government troops cut off Qin Hou's contact with the "Eighteen Cave Man," leaving him isolated and without support. Qin Hou had no choice but to accept negotiations. As a result, under the pretext of negotiation, the government troops arrested him at Longfu Pass, then sent him under escort to Nanjing, where on the sixth day of the sixth month of that year he was flayed and killed.
It is said that on the day Qin Hou was killed, the sky over the capital turned dark and murky, and two golden dragons in the clouds bared their teeth and claws, lunging straight at the Golden Phoenix Hall. Zhu Yuanzhang was frightened out of his wits, fell from his throne, and in a panic asked his ministers, "What grave injustice is this?" The ministers replied, "Outside the Meridian Gate, the rebel leader of Huguang, Qin Hou, was executed. It is said that when he was born he had two fleshy dragons on his back—he was originally a person of extraordinary destiny." To appease the resentment of Qin Hou's wronged spirit, Zhu Yuanzhang immediately issued an edict ordering that Qin Hou's skin be used to make a human figure, dressed in a dragon robe, and seated in honor for one day each year. As soon as the words were spoken, the clouds dispersed and the sun appeared, restoring brightness. From then on, Qin Hou was honored as the "One-Day Emperor." Every year on the sixth day of the sixth month, Tujia people dry the dragon robe to show their support for this "One-Day Emperor." There is another explanation for the custom of commemorating Tuwang Qin Hou on the sixth day of the sixth month: Tuwang Qin Hou led his followers in battle against government troops and was unfortunately stabbed, his blood staining his battle robe. The local people carried Qin Hou's body back, took off the dragon robe, washed and dried it, then put it back on him, and held a day of mourning, later building a Tuwang Temple for year-round sacrifices. The day Tuwang Qin Hou met his calamity was exactly the sixth day of the sixth month, so from then on there was the custom of commemorating the Tuwang on this day. People expose brand-new or washed clothes to the sun for a full day and only bring them back indoors the next morning, expressing that they are washing the blood-stained dragon robe for the Tuwang. From drying the dragon robe to sacrifice to the Tuwang, the custom of drying books for the Tuwang also derived. People pick out some books and put them in the sun to dry, actually to prevent mildew and repel insects, but the Tujia say it is sending books to the Tuwang. The books dried for the Tuwang are generally military books, meaning to help the Tuwang master the art of war so that he can defeat evil spirits in the underworld. When drying books, a memorial ceremony is also held before a simple mourning hall, with ritual words chanted: "We weep for our Tuwang, tears streaming from both eyes; as common people, he died in battle on the battlefield... The sea of clouds is vast, the Dragon River mighty; the general's achievements will be remembered through the ages..."
The Half-Month Festival of the Tujia in western Hubei is said to be a festival established by the Tusi. According to legend, the Rongmei Tusi living in the Hefeng area was very powerful. To display his authority, he moved the Half-Month Festival of the fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month two days earlier, requiring the subjects in his jurisdiction to celebrate the Half-Month Festival on the thirteenth day of the seventh month, and demanded that it be even more grand than the New Year. Hence the Tujia saying, "The New Year is small, the Half-Month is big." On the thirteenth day of the seventh month, Tujia people hold grand banquets, eat reunion meals, and sacrifice to ancestors. They also hang lanterns and decorations and paste couplets as at New Year, and married women all return to their natal homes. Because the rise of this festival depended entirely on the Tusi's advocacy, it can be said to be a festival designated by the Tusi, so it also contains psychological elements of Tuwang worship.
The Tujia in western Hubei celebrate the "God-Washing Festival" on the first day of the twelfth lunar month. This is a festival for sacrificing to the Tuwang gods, the Great, Second, and Third Gods. At that time, portraits of the Great, Second, and Third Gods, finely mounted on scrolls, are hung on the shrine. People slaughter pigs and sheep to offer to the gods and hold a god-washing ceremony. Men and women, old and young, gather before the divine images in ethnic costume. The Tulaoshi (Tujia ritual master) performs rites, blows horns to summon the gods, and dances to drive away evil. They also dig up a clay jar that was buried in advance, open the lid, and scatter soil outward, called "releasing soldiers," to pray for a prosperous year and peace for people and livestock. Afterward, young men and women play with fire sticks, and everyone sings and dances through the night until dawn.