Tujia Folk Beliefs and Culture — Nuo Deity Worship (Part 1)
Chapter 10: Nuo Deity Worship. Nuo is an ancient practice of expelling plague demons, belonging to shamanic arts. The Nuo deities arose to meet the needs of Nuo rituals for worshipping gods and driving out evil spirits. But their divine duties were not limited to expelling plague demons; they also included granting children and bestowing blessings. Like those of other ethnic groups in southwest China, the Tujia Nuo deities are a pair of husband-and-wife gods, called "Nuo..."
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Chapter Ten: Nuo God Worship
Nuo is an ancient activity of driving away plague ghosts and belongs to one of the shamanic arts. The Nuo gods are deities that arose to meet the needs of Nuo shamanic activities of sacrificing to the gods and driving away plague ghosts. But the divine duties of the Nuo gods are not limited solely to driving away ghosts and plagues; they also extend to granting children, bestowing blessings, and more. The Nuo gods of the Tujia people, like those of other ethnic groups in southwest China, are a pair of husband-and-wife deities, called "Nuo Gong" (Nuo Father) and "Nuo Mu" (Nuo Mother).
The scene of the Tujia people setting up a Nuo altar, sacrificing to Nuo Gong and Nuo Mu, and performing Nuo rituals is very lively. The Nuo altar is generally set up in the central room. In the center of the central room is placed a square table, on which are enshrined the wooden statues of Nuo Gong and Nuo Mu, both deities' faces painted red. Before the Nuo gods, candles are lit and incense burned. Behind the table hangs a cloth curtain, on which are painted dozens of divine images, including the Daoist "Three Pure Ones" and "Three Primes," various folk deities and spirits, and the ancestral masters of the various Nuo altars, and so on, extremely diverse. On both sides of the table also hang numerous Nuo masks, which are also symbols of deities. Before the table, three Peach Blossom Source gates are erected, used for "opening the cave" and inviting the Nuo opera during Nuo activities. Before the central room door, a stage is erected for performing Nuo opera to thank the gods. When Nuo rituals are performed, spectators crowd around like a wall. The Tu teacher wears an eight-paneled skirt, a phoenix crown on his head, and holds a ritual knife in his hand, dancing as if intoxicated before the Nuo altar in the central room to the sound of gongs and drums, occasionally blowing a few low notes on an ox horn, praying to the gods in a manner that is half chant and half recitation, and continually bowing and saluting the gods, burning paper money, and offering sacrifices. When finished, he uses an ox horn or bamboo root to divine by throwing, to verify whether the prayers have been efficacious. Next, the Tu teacher puts on a mask and begins to perform Nuo opera. "For a time, heavenly gods and earthly deities, ox-headed ghosts and snake spirits, loyal ministers and good generals, village folk and cowherd boys all gather in one hall, whether it be the orthodox gods driving away ghosts, or immortals and Daoist transformations, or golden spears and iron horses, or strategizing in the command tent, or worldly affairs of the human realm, or romance and love talk... The performers sing and dance, giving full play to their talents." "It presents a mysterious and peculiar atmosphere, at times devout and solemn, full of mysterious religious and superstitious color, at times boisterous and clamorous, at times full of wit and humor with the whole hall roaring with laughter, brimming with worldly human sentiment. Here actors and audience mingle together, humans, gods, and ghosts gather in one hall, and common wishes, common mindsets, and common joy merge people into one, forming a fantastic yet real, chaotic yet distinct, devout yet blasphemous, contradictory yet unified peculiar world."
The Tujia people's Nuo god worship originated from the ancient Nuo rituals of the Central Plains and is a product of the fusion of Han Chinese culture and Tujia culture.
I. The Origins and Development of Nuo and Its Spread in the Tujia Region
Nuo, which first arose in the Central Plains region of China, is a sacrificial ritual that uses masked shamanic arts to avert evil spirits and pray to the gods.
From the perspective of philology, the original meaning of "Nuo" has nothing to do with driving away ghosts and expelling plagues. The Shuowen says: "Nuo means to walk with rhythm, from the person radical, with the abbreviated sound of nan." The Book of Songs, in the section "Wei Feng: Bamboo Pole," still preserves the original meaning of "Nuo": "Her artful smile so fair, her jade ornaments so Nuo (rhythmic)." Later, "Nuo" came to be used as a loan character for "Xiao," and only then did it acquire the meaning of driving away ghosts and expelling plagues. The Shuowen explains "Xiao": "A cry of alarm upon seeing a ghost, from the ghost radical, with the abbreviated sound of nan." "Nuo" became a loan character for "Xiao" because they were pronounced the same, both read as "with the abbreviated sound of nan." After "Nuo" was borrowed as the character "Xiao," its original meaning was forgotten by people, so much so that by the Tang Dynasty some believed that the meaning of "Nuo" was derived from the "nuo, nuo" sounds uttered when driving away ghosts and expelling plagues. Duan Anjie's Yuefu Zalu says: "Four Fangxiang officials are used, wearing crowns and masks, with four golden eyes, clothed in bear skin, holding spears and raising shields, uttering the sound 'nuo, nuo' from their mouths, in order to expel and drive out."
Nuo, as a primitive sacrificial ritual combining driving-away shamanic arts and masked shamanic arts, gradually developed into an ancient cultural system that includes Nuo sacrifice, Nuo dance, and Nuo opera. After the Zhou Dynasty, Chinese Nuo developed along two lines: on the one hand it entered the imperial court, and on the other it remained among the common people. In later times, due to imperial prohibitions, Nuo gradually shifted from the Central Plains region to remote areas. The Tujia people thus accepted Nuo and integrated it into their own ethnic cultural system, forming the Tujia people's Nuo god worship.
In the Zhou Dynasty and thereafter, Nuo became a court sacrificial rite. The Book of Rites, Chapter on Monthly Ordinances, records the performance of Nuo sacrifices in the Zhou Dynasty: "Orders are given for the state exorcism, with sacrifices split at the nine gates to avert evil, to bring the spring air to an end." The Rites of Zhou, Chapter on Summer Offices, Office of the Fangxiangshi, also states: "The Fangxiangshi is in charge of wearing a bear skin, with four golden eyes, dressed in black upper garments and red lower garments, holding a spear and raising a shield, leading a hundred subordinates in seasonal exorcisms to search the chambers and drive out epidemics. In the case of a great mourning, he precedes the coffin, and upon reaching the grave, enters the pit, striking the four corners with his spear to drive away the Fangliang." The Fangxiangshi was a role assumed by a shaman who could search out ghosts and demons with four eyes. They draped themselves in bear skins, wore masks with a pair of eyes on both the front and back (four eyes in total), dressed in bright red garments, brandished spears and shields, and led a host of followers in performing the Nuo dance to drive out ghostly epidemics from the palace chambers. When encountering a funeral, they acted as the guide before the coffin, and upon reaching the burial site, entered the pit to strike the surrounding corners with a spear to drive away ghosts and monsters. Nuo activities were held according to the seasons, hence they were also called "seasonal Nuo." The Nuo sacrifice held at the end of winter was the grandest in scale, and thus was called the "Great Nuo." The Lüshi Chunqiu, Chapter on the Last Month of Winter: "Orders are given to the officials for the Great Nuo, with sacrifices split at the sides, and the earth ox is brought out to send off the cold air." Gao You's commentary: "The Great Nuo drives out all yin energy and guides in the yang; today, on the day before the la year-end festival, people beat drums to drive out epidemics, which is called 'expelling and eliminating.'"
In the two Han dynasties, Nuo sacrifices followed the Zhou system and became a regularly established ritual in the palace. The Book of the Later Han, Treatise on Rituals, states: "On the day before the la festival, the Great Nuo is held, which is called expelling epidemics. Its ritual: select sons of the Yellow Gate who are ten years or older and twelve years or younger, one hundred and twenty in number, as Zhenzi, all wearing red headbands and black garments, holding large drums. The Fangxiangshi has four golden eyes, is covered in bear skin, wears black upper garments and red lower garments, holds a spear and raises a shield; the twelve beasts have fur and horns. The Central Yellow Gate conducts it, and the Yuancon4 archery commanders lead it, to drive out evil ghosts from within the forbidden palace. When the night water-clock rises, the court officials assemble, and the Shizhong, Shangshu, Yushi, Yezhe, Huben, and Yulin Langjiang officers on duty all wear red headbands and guard the steps. The imperial carriage proceeds to the front hall. The Yellow Gate Commandant announces: 'The Zhenzi are ready, please expel the epidemics.' Thereupon the Central Yellow Gate leads the chant, and the Zhenzi respond, saying: 'Jiazuo devours the fierce, Feiwei devours tigers, Xiongbo devours specters, Tengjian devours the inauspicious, Lan Zhu devours calamity, Boqi devours dreams, Qiangliang and Zuming together devour the dismembered and parasitic, Weisui devours visions, Cuoduan devours the gigantic, Qiongqi and Tenggen together devour gu poison. All twelve spirits are commanded to pursue the evil and fierce, to brand your bodies, pull your trunks, dismember your flesh, extract your liver and intestines. If you do not quickly depart, those who remain will become provisions!' Then they perform the dance of the Fangxiangshi and the twelve beasts. With cheers, they circle front and back, making three inspections, and holding torches, send the epidemics out through the Duanmen gate; outside the gate, mounted attendants relay the torches out of the palace, and outside the Sima Que gate, the knights of the five camps relay the fire to cast it into the Luo River. The various officials and government offices, each with wooden-faced beast performers who can serve as Nuo masters, set up peach figurines, Yulei and reed ropes, and the officers on the steps are dismissed. Reed halberds and peach staffs are bestowed upon dukes, ministers, generals, special marquises, and feudal lords." The Nuo sacrifice of the Han Dynasty was more complex and massive. The protagonist of the Nuo sacrifice remained the Fangxiangshi, but there also appeared the "twelve beasts" paired with the Fangxiangshi. At the same time, the Zhou Dynasty's "hundred subordinates" were replaced by the "Zhen
zi." The "Zhenzi" were played by sons of nobles aged ten or older and twelve or younger. The ritual activities not only included the act of driving out ghosts, but also added incantations, and the participants in the exorcism ritual were numerous.
By the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the court Nuo sacrificial ritual saw new developments. The Book of Sui, Treatise on Rituals III, records: "The Qi system: On the last day of the last month of winter, select sons of musicians aged ten or older and twelve or younger as Zhenzi, totaling two hundred and forty. One hundred and twenty wear red headbands and black sturdy garments, holding hand drums; one hundred and twenty wear red cloth trousers and jackets, holding leather horns. The Fangxiangshi has four golden eyes, a bear skin covering the head, black upper garments and red lower garments, holds a spear and raises a shield. Also, Qiongji, Zuming and the like, twelve beasts in total, all have fur and horns. The Drum and Wind Office leads them, the Central Yellow Gate conducts them, and the redundant attendants and archery commanders lead them, to drive out evil ghosts from within the forbidden palace. On that day, at the third watch of the wu night, the various ward gates are opened, and the Nuo performers assemble, donning clothing and equipment to await the proceedings. At the fourth watch of the wu night, the various city gates are opened, and the two guards are all on alert. At the first quarter after the water-clock rises, the emperor in regular attire takes his seat, and princes and officials of the first rank and below, and of the sixth rank and above, sit in attendance to observe. The Nuo performers drum and shout, entering the west gate of the hall, spreading throughout the forbidden palace. They divide and exit through the two upper pavilions, performing the dance of the Fangxiangshi and the twelve beasts, with clamorous shouts all around, and drumming and shouting before and after. They exit through the south gate of the hall, dividing into six routes, and proceed outside the city walls." The emperor and ministers sat in rows to watch the Nuo sacrifice, which was not only participation in an activity to drive out ghostly epidemics, but also watching a performance; at this time, the Nuo ritual already possessed ornamental and entertainment value.
During the Northern Wei, the meaning of Nuo was no longer limited to driving out ghosts and epidemics; it also expanded into the military sphere, giving rise to a "military Nuo" that displayed military might in formation, prayed for divine protection, and performed the defeat of the enemy. The ghost-drivers and the epidemic ghosts being driven in the Nuo ritual were replaced by two opposing armies. Due to the situation of north-south confrontation at the time, the military Nuo performed in the Northern Wei court used a presumed Northern Wei army to replace the ghost-drivers, representing the victorious side, and a presumed southern army to replace the epidemic ghosts, as the defeated. The entire ritual process was a performance of the Northern Wei army defeating the southern army. From then on, there was this ritual called "military Nuo."
In the Sui and Tang dynasties, the scale of the court Nuo ritual continued to expand. The Book of Sui records: "The Sui system: On the last day of the last month of spring, Nuo is held, with sacrifices split at the palace gates and the four city gates, to avert yin energy. On the day before the autumn equinox, yang energy is averted. On the last month of winter, side sacrifices and the Great Nuo are likewise held. For the sacrifices, each gate uses one ram and one rooster. Zhenzi are selected as in the later Qi. In winter, eight teams; for the two seasonal Nuo, four teams. Twelve interrogators, in red headbands and sturdy garments, holding leather whips. Twenty-two workers. One of them is the Fangxiangshi, with four golden eyes, covered in bear skin, black upper garments and red lower garments. One of them is the chant master, wearing leather garments, holding a staff. Drums and horns, ten each. The officials prepare roosters, rams, and wine, and make a pit at the palace gate. Before dawn, they drum and shout as they enter. The Fangxiangshi holds a spear and raises a shield, calls out all around, drums and shouts, and exits." The Yuefu Zalu records: "Four Fangxiangshi are used, wearing crowns and masks, with four golden eyes, dressed in bear fur, holding spears and raising shields, uttering the sound 'Nuo, Nuo' from their mouths to expel and drive out. The twelve on the right all have red hair, wear white embroidered and painted garments, each holding a hemp whip, braided from hemp, several feet long, which makes a sharp sound when shaken, and they call out the names of the spirits: those such as Jiazuo who devours the fierce, Feiwei who devours tigers, Tengjian who devours gu, and so on. Five hundred Zhenzi, played by young boys, wear red jackets and plain undergarments, and wear masks. On the last day of the month, Nuo is held before the Zichen Hall, with official music suspended. Ten days beforehand, the Taichang Qing and various officials first review the Nuo at their own temple, and also view all the music. On that day, there is a great feast for the officials of three to five offices, and the families of court officials all set up canopies to watch, and common people also enter to see, which is quite a spectacle." In the Sui and Tang Nuo ritual, four Fangxiangshi were used, and the Zhenzi increased to five hundred, and all, like the Fangxiangshi, wore masks, making the scene even grander. At this time, the Nuo ritual incorporated more elements of artistic performance, with song, dance, and music mixed in, enhancing its entertainment value. Not only the emperor and his subordinate officials could watch, but common people could also watch; the development of the Nuo ritual toward Nuo opera probably began at this time.
In the Song Dynasty, the annual court Nuo event was still grand in scale and added even more elements of artistic performance. Meng Yuanlao's Dongjing Menghua Lu says: "On the day of the New Year's Eve, a great Nuo ritual is presented in the forbidden palace, and the imperial city's personal officials and various guards wear masks, embroidered and painted colored garments, and hold golden spears and dragon banners. The Jiaofang commissioner Meng Jingchu, of stalwart build, wears a full set of gold-plated copper armor, dressed as a general; two palace-guarding generals are used, also in armor, dressed as door gods; the Jiaofang's Nan He Tan, ugly and stout, is dressed as a judge; also dressed as Zhong Kui, Little Sister, Earth God, Stove God, and the like, totaling over a thousand people. From the forbidden palace, they drive the evil out through the Nanxun Gate, turn to Longwan, which is called 'burying the evil.' That night, in the forbidden palace, firecrackers and mountain-shaking shouts are heard outside." Wu Zimu's Mengliang Lu records that the Southern Song court Nuo ritual was roughly the same as that of the Northern Song: "On New Year's Eve in the forbidden palace, a great Nuo ritual is presented, and all the various guards of the Imperial City Office wear masks, don embroidered and painted garments of mixed colors, hold golden spears and silver halberds, painted wooden swords, five-colored dragon-phoenixes, and five-colored banners, and the musicians of the Music Office dress as generals, talisman envoys, judges, Zhong Kui, the six ding and six jia divine soldiers, the ghost envoys of the five directions, the Stove Lord, Earth God, door gods, divine commandants, and other spirits; from the forbidden palace, drums and pipes are sounded, driving the evil out through the Donghua Gate, turning to Longchi Bay, which is called 'burying the evil' before dispersing." The court Nuo rituals of the two Song dynasties had developed into large-scale ritual activities involving over a thousand participants and incorporated a great deal of secular culture. Numerous folk deities entered the Nuo ritual, replacing the ghost-driving figure Fangxiangshi of earlier Nuo rituals, forming a mighty array for driving out ghosts. The diverse folk exorcism customs were also adopted by the Nuo ritual, making its activity of driving out epidemic ghosts more complex. In addition, the court Nuo rituals of the two Song dynasties were mostly held on New Year's Eve, and often had song and dance mixed in, with an even stronger celebratory and entertainment flavor.
From the Yuan to the Qing, the court Nuo ritual gradually declined and eventually perished. The Nuo activities circulating among the people also gradually shifted from north to south, and ultimately survived only in the southwestern region.
The Nuo tradition was transmitted to the Tujia people in the adjacent regions of Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, and Guizhou, approximately after the Qing Dynasty's bureaucratization of native chieftains. This bureaucratization broke the prohibitions of 'Tujia not leaving the territory, Han not entering the caves,' and a large influx of Han people into Tujia areas brought Nuo. Because it was transmitted to Tujia regions relatively late, the Nuo that entered Tujia culture was already a complex cultural form that had been passed down for millennia and integrated multiple cultural elements.
The Qing Daoguang Hefeng Prefecture Gazetteer records indicate that Nuo was brought by Han people into Tujia areas: "There are also those who sacrifice to the Luo spirits, with two wooden masks, one black and one white, sacrificed to at night each year, called completing the Nuo vow; this is the custom of Hunan guest households." Once Nuo was transmitted to Tujia areas, it immediately coincided with the Tujia's long-standing shamanic cultural tradition, was quickly absorbed by the Tujia, and was incorporated into their ethnic shamanic cultural series. Nuo activities in Tujia areas during the Qing Dynasty are widely recorded in local gazetteers.
The Qing Qianlong Tenth Year Yongshun County Gazetteer says: "Yong customs, when rewarding the gods, must invite the shamans of Chen prefecture to sing and perform Nuo opera. ... In the evening, Nuo opera is performed, with gongs and drums beaten, each person with a paper mask, those dressed as women called Meng Jiangnü, those played by men called Fan Qilang."
The Qing Tongzhi Laifeng County Gazetteer says: "One day, a Nuo vow is repaid, shamans are invited and pigs are slaughtered, two images of the Nuo King, male and female, are set up, the shaman wears a paper mask, dressed as Meng Jiangnü and Fan Qilang, beating drums and sounding gongs, singing and dancing all night."