Tujia Folk Beliefs and Culture — White Emperor Heavenly King Worship
Chapter 7: White Emperor Heavenly King Worship. The White Emperor Heavenly King is a deity in Tujia areas (mainly western Hunan) who presides over litigation, settles unjust cases, and dispels disasters. The Tujia formerly had the custom of redeeming vows to the Heavenly King: when illness struck, they prayed at the Heavenly King Temple for protection, and upon recovery they made offerings to fulfill the vow and invited a tu laoshi to officiate. In disputes, fights, or cases of injustice, they swore an oath before the deity, cutting a cat...
This article has been compiled from historical materials on 'Zhangjiajie Tour Guide Network' (33519.com · Specialty Foods / Cuisine / Customs section). Prices, business hours, administrative divisions, and statistical data mentioned in the text may already be outdated. Before traveling, please refer to the latest announcements from merchants, scenic areas, and local competent authorities; the parts involving folk legends and folk customs are local historical and cultural anecdotes, provided for cultural reference.
Chapter Seven: The Worship of the White Emperor Heavenly Kings
The White Emperor Heavenly Kings are deities of the Tujia ethnic group (mainly in the Xiangxi region) who preside over litigation, redress unjust cases, and avert disasters and resolve difficulties. In the past, the Tujia people had the custom of redeeming vows to the Heavenly Kings. Whenever illness struck, they would go to the Heavenly Kings Temple to pray for blessings; upon recovery, they would go before the deities to offer sacrifices in fulfillment of their vows, and invite a Tu master to perform rituals. When disputes, fights, or grievances arose, they would swear an oath before the deities, dripping cat's blood into wine and drinking it, seeking divine judgment. The chen and si days before Minor Heat each year were the days specifically dedicated to sacrificing to the White Emperor Heavenly Kings. There were taboo customs such as prohibiting slaughter, fishing, and hunting, forbidding the wearing of red clothing, and not allowing music to be played; it was popularly believed that violating these prohibitions would bring epidemic disease. The White Emperor Heavenly Kings once held a lofty position among the Tujia people. So what kind of deity were they exactly? Mr. Pan Guangdan once pointed out that the White Emperor Heavenly Kings were deities evolved from the white tiger totem of the Tujia ancestors, that the White Emperor was the "white tiger," that "tiger" and "emperor" are very similar in seal script, and that "emperor" was a mistaken writing of "tiger," and so on. Mr. Pan Guangdan's theory once exerted considerable influence. However, Mr. Pan Guangdan's connection of the White Emperor with the white tiger lacked direct and conclusive evidence, relying more on speculation and indirect proofs. Mr. Pan himself also felt that his explanation was somewhat too complicated and had some doubts about the reliability of his conclusion. He said: "In short, regarding the composition of the White Emperor, future understanding may turn out to be much simpler than our present understanding—who can say?" Indeed, if one does not insist on forcibly linking the white tiger with the White Emperor, explaining the origin of the White Emperor becomes very simple. The White Emperor is simply the deity of the west, one of the five Heavenly Emperors of the ancients, originally a directional sky deity. Because the Shu region was located in the west of the Central Plains, the White Emperor, as the deity of the west, was regarded as the sky deity of Shu and became associated with Shu's myths, legends, and historical figures, to which various concrete contents were attached, forming the White Emperor worship (i.e., the White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship) that was passed down to later generations. From relevant materials, it can be seen that Fengjie in the Shu region should have been the center of White Emperor worship. The ancestors of the Tujia, the Ba people, once migrated to the Shu region and established a state there, so they would naturally have been influenced by Shu's religious culture and worshipped the White Emperor Heavenly Kings. During the Warring States period, Chu destroyed the state of Ba, and the Ba people scattered in all directions, with the majority migrating southward into Xiangxi. After the Ba people spread to Xiangxi, they brought the White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship there. Therefore, the White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship was mainly distributed in its place of origin, Fengjie in Sichuan (ancient Shu), and in Xiangxi and the Tujia areas near Xiangxi, such as Laifeng in Hubei; while in Changyang, Enshi, and other places in Hubei—the birthplace of the Ba people and their dwelling places before entering Shu—traces of White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship are difficult to find.
I. The White Emperor as the Deity of the West
Regarding China's early history, there is the theory of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. The Five Emperors were five ancient emperors named by the ancients according to the five directions—four cardinal directions and the center—also known as the five directional sky deities, or "five directional gods." During the Warring States period, the doctrine of the "Five Elements" arose, gradually forming a system that matched the Five Elements with five colors, five directions, and five emperors. "Chu Ci: Far Roaming" says: "Xuanyuan cannot be reached, I shall follow Wang Qiao and amuse myself... I shall pass by Goumang, traverse Taihao and turn right... meet Rushou at the Western Sovereign... Zhurong warns and turns back the chariot... follow Zhuanxu to the layered ice, pass through Xuanming by a side path." The names of the five directional Heavenly Emperors involved in the poem are: the central emperor is Xuanyuan; the eastern emperor is Goumang; the western emperor is Rushou; the southern emperor is Zhurong; the northern emperor is Xuanming.
"Chu Ci: Grieving" says: "I command the Five Emperors to judge fairly." Wang Yi's commentary: "The Five Emperors are the deities of the five directions. The east is Taihao, the south is Yandi, the west is Shaohao, the north is Zhuanxu, the center is Huangdi." The five directional Heavenly Emperors involved in the poem are: the eastern emperor is Taihao, the southern emperor is Yandi, the western emperor is Shaohao, the northern emperor is Zhuanxu, the central emperor is Huangdi.
"Rites of Zhou: Heavenly Offices: Grand Steward" says: "Sacrifice to the Five Emperors." Tang dynasty Jia Gongyan's sub-commentary: "The Five Emperors are: the eastern Green Emperor Lingwei Yang, the southern Red Emperor Chibiao Nu, the central Yellow Emperor Han Shuniu, the western White Emperor Bai Zhaoju..." The deity also acquired the title of Heavenly King, and Fengjie in the Shu region became the center of White Emperor Heavenly Kings belief. According to the "Fengjie County Gazetteer," Fengjie has White Emperor Mountain, on which there are the White Emperor Temple, the Heavenly Kings Temple, the White Emperor City, and the White Emperor Tower. These are all remnants of White Emperor worship culture and markers of the localization (or regionalization) of White Emperor worship.
The localization of White Emperor worship refers to its combination with Shu's myths, legends, and local features, being endowed with new connotations, and the origin of the White Emperor being given new explanations. The Shu region had many bamboos, and there was the Bamboo King myth. "Book of Later Han: Biographies of the Southern Man and Southwestern Yi" records: "The Southwestern Yi are beyond the borders of Shu Commandery. There is the Yelang state... In Yelang, originally a woman was washing clothes in the Dun River, when three sections of large bamboo floated into the space between her feet. She heard sounds of shouting from within, split the bamboo open, and found a baby boy. She took him home and raised him. When he grew up, he had talent and martial prowess, and established himself as the Marquis of Yelang, taking Bamboo as his surname." Chang Qu of the Jin dynasty, in "Records of Huayang State: Records of the South," also recorded this myth, roughly saying: The Bamboo King originally came from the Dun River. A woman was washing by the water's edge when three sections of large bamboo floated into the space between her feet and could not be pushed away. She heard the crying of an infant, took it home, split the large bamboo open, and found a baby boy. He was raised and grew up with talent and martial prowess, and became the leader of the Yi and Di peoples. His clan took Bamboo as their surname, and they placed the bamboo from which the child was born in the wilderness, where it grew into a bamboo grove. This was the bamboo grove where the Bamboo King Shrine was located. The Bamboo King and his followers rested on a large rock. The Bamboo King asked his followers to boil soup, and the follower said: "There is no water." The Bamboo King then struck the rock with his sword; the rock split, and spring water gushed from the opening. This water was later called Bamboo King Water, and the rock the Bamboo King struck is still there. The Bamboo King myth shows that the Shu region once worshipped a bamboo totem. After the rise of White Emperor deity worship, it merged with the bamboo totem, and the White Emperor was said to be the son of the Bamboo King, and moreover changed from one deity into three deities. The White Emperor Heavenly Kings deity worshipped by the Tujia people of Xiangxi in later generations is precisely the Bamboo King's three sons deity formed through fusion with the bamboo totem. The Qianlong fourth year (1739) "Qianzhou Subprefecture Gazetteer" (Qianzhou, present-day Luxi County in Xiangxi) records: "The Bamboo King Temple is five li north of the subprefecture at Yaxi, commonly known as the White Emperor Heavenly Kings. According to the 'Book of Later Han: Biographies of the Man and Yi': 'In Yelang, originally a woman was washing in the Dun River, when three sections of large bamboo floated into the space between her feet. She heard sounds of shouting from within, split the bamboo open, and found a baby boy. She took him home and raised him. When he grew up, he had talent and martial prowess, and established himself as the Marquis of Yelang, taking Bamboo as his surname. In the sixth year of the Yuanding era of Emperor Wu, the Southern Yi were pacified and the Zangke Commandery was established. The Marquis of Yelang came to submit, and the Son of Heaven granted him the king's seal and ribbon. Later he was killed. The Yi and Liao all considered that the Bamboo King was not born of blood and flesh, and greatly revered him, requesting that an heir be established for him. The Zangke Grand Administrator Wu Ba reported this, and the Son of Heaven enfeoffed his three sons as marquises. After death, they were given offerings alongside their father. Today, Yelang County has the Bamboo King Three Lords deity.' It can be seen that the White Emperor Heavenly Kings deity of the Shu region had already become three. III. The Tujia White Emperor Heavenly Kings
The White Emperor Heavenly Kings worshipped in the Tujia region were brought by the Ba people from the Shu region—the localized White Emperor Heavenly Kings, namely the Bamboo King's three sons. The White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship recorded in Xiangxi local gazetteers is believed to originate from the Bamboo King worship of the Shu region, with the White Emperor Heavenly Kings being the Bamboo King's three sons. The "Qianzhou Subprefecture Gazetteer" (Qianzhou, present-day Luxi County) says: "The Five Streams Man worship the White Emperor Heavenly Kings deity, three persons with faces of different colors—white, black, and red... The various gazetteers of Luxi cite the 'Records of the Grand Historian: Biographies of the Southwestern Yi' that a small boy was found in a split bamboo, grew up to be the Marquis of Yelang, was tricked and killed by Emperor Wu of Han, and had three sons, all acclaimed by the Man and Yi, with the third son being especially brave and fierce. Later generations, because the Bamboo King was not born of blood and flesh and possessed divine power, established a temple to sacrifice to him. In the present temple, the third lord's image is especially fierce, and he is feared by the Miao."
The Daoguang fourth year (1824) "Fenghuang Subprefecture Gazetteer" records: "According to the 'Comprehensive Gazetteer,' in Han times Yelang City was in the north, which may be the so-called Bamboo King Three Lords deity."
The White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship transmitted from the Shu region to the Tujia region inevitably underwent variations, taking on regional or ethnic characteristics. However, all these variations did not depart from their root—they were all evolutions based on the Bamboo King's three sons White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship.
The most popular variant form is that of the eighth-generation descendant and three grandsons of the Song dynasty famous general Yang Ye as the White Emperor Heavenly Kings. In the minds of Chinese people, the Yang family was a family of generals, producing generation after generation of illustrious military commanders. The Tujia taking the sons of the Yang family as deities was to honor them as gods of war, and moreover, this god of war was related to the conflicts between the Tujia and the Miao. The Tujia and Miao had long coexisted on the land bordering Xiang, E, Chuan, and Qian, with both peaceful coexistence and conflict and confrontation. Objectively speaking, the Yang family White Emperor Heavenly Kings were war gods used by the Tujia against the Miao, as can be seen from the miracles of the Yang family White Emperor Heavenly Kings worshipped by the Tujia.
The Guangxu eighteenth year (1892) "Fenghuang Subprefecture Continued Gazetteer" records: "South of Qian there is a temple, and formerly a plaque above it read 'Heavenly Kings Temple.' I did not know its origin, so I asked the elders. The elders said: The temple of the deities has received offerings in this land for over four hundred years. There is a great temple at Yaxi; this is its worship pavilion. The so-called three kings are brothers: the eldest named Jinlong, the second named Jinbiao, and the third named Jinzuan, surnamed Yang, descendants of the Song famous general
Ye in the eighth generation. When the Song crossed south, during the Xiaozong reign, they received orders to campaign against the Chen Man and opened up Nine Streams and Eighteen Caves."
The Daoguang fourth year (1824) "Fenghuang Subprefecture Gazetteer" records: "The Three Marquises Temple, also known as the White Emperor Heavenly Kings. Three brothers, with statues—one white-faced, one red-faced, one black-faced. It is said that thirty-six men killed nine thousand Miao, and to this day they are feared... The local people sacrifice to them. It is also said they were surnamed Yang, eighth-generation descendants of the Song's Yang Ye, named Yinglong, Yinghu, and Yingbao."
The "Yuanzhou Gazetteer" describes the three Yang brothers as men of Chenzhou, localizing the Yang family generals and honoring them as native-born deities, still related to wars with the Miao. The book says that the White Emperor Heavenly Kings deity worshipped by the Five Streams Man are three brothers of the Yang family of Chenzhou, all valiant generals of the Song dynasty, who campaigned against the Miao, achieved victory, and opened up Nine Streams and Eighteen Caves.
After the localization of the three Yang brothers deity, further variations occurred, to the point where only the surname Yang remained, completely shedding the connection with the Song famous general Yang Ye, becoming the three Yang brothers of the Tujia region. Yet their birth legend still follows the framework of the Bamboo King's birth story, showing that there is variation within transmission and transmission within variation. The Guangxu third year (1877) "Qianzhou Subprefecture Gazetteer" records: "Yaxi is five li from Qian; the place has only the Yang clan. It is said that a maiden washed in the stream, suddenly saw a radiant light, was moved by human feelings, and a year later gave birth to three sons at once, all brave and heroic in stature, with strikingly different appearances." The three sons were honored as the White Emperor Heavenly Kings, and the temple was established at Yaxi in Qianzhou. This Yaxi White Emperor Heavenly Kings Temple differs from White Emperor Heavenly Kings temples elsewhere: behind the temple there is also a shrine dedicated to the mother of the three sons. This is the unique feature of the Yaxi White Emperor Heavenly Kings Temple, and can also be seen as a development and change in Tujia Heavenly Kings worship. The Guangxu third year "Qianzhou Subprefecture Gazetteer" records: "Behind the Yaxi Temple (the White Emperor Heavenly Kings Temple at Yaxi—author's note) there is a shrine to the Marquises' mother. At Yaxi she is most intimately regarded; no matter old or young, male or female, those who come to sacrifice do not call her Old Auntie; with flowered crown and embroidered shoes, she allows children to play before her without it being considered disrespectful. Other places have no shrine to the Marquises' mother; where there are nearby, people dare not look at her directly."
White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship also merged with the Tujia white tiger totem, forming another variant form of White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship passed down in the Tujia region. This variant form contains the following transformational relationship: humans transform into tigers, and tigers transform into the White Emperor Heavenly Kings. According to the Tujia legend of the White Emperor Heavenly Kings: the mother of the White Emperor Heavenly Kings, the shamaness Meng Yi, went to the well to fetch water. A white dragon in the well flashed three beams of white light, all striking Meng Yi. Meng Yi conceived from the white light and gave birth to three brothers. After the three brothers grew up, they had talent and martial prowess, and the emperor conscripted them to quell rebellions. They fought bravely and repeatedly achieved merit. The emperor, fearing they might rebel and seize the throne, issued an edict falsely saying he would promote their rank. After the three brothers entered the capital, the emperor bestowed three jars of imperial wine, ordering them to open and drink the wine only after returning to their homeland. After the three brothers returned home and drank the wine, the eldest drank first; after only one cup, his face turned white and he fell dead. The second brother drank right after the eldest; after two cups, his face turned red and he fell dead. The third brother drank right after the second; after three cups in a row, his face turned black and he fell dead. It turned out that what the emperor had bestowed was poisoned wine; the emperor had wanted to poison the three brothers to death. After the three brothers died, they transformed into three white tigers and came to the Golden Luan Hall, baring teeth and claws, glaring angrily. The emperor was terrified and, knowing the plot was exposed, granted them divine titles. But after granting various divine titles, the three white tigers still would not leave. Finally, the emperor granted them the title of White Emperor Heavenly Kings and established a temple for sacrifices; only then did the three white tigers nod and depart. The fusion of White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship with the Tujia white tiger totem endowed the White Emperor Heavenly Kings deity with the flavor of Tujia religious culture, making it easier for the Tujia people to identify with. But this is not to say that after the fusion, the White Emperor Heavenly Kings became a totemic deity or ethnic deity of the Tujia. It can only be said that the White Emperor Heavenly Kings were a sky deity transmitted from the Shu region, transformed by the Tujia people, and devoutly believed in by the Tujia people.
Although the White Emperor Heavenly Kings deity's status among the Tujia is not as high as that of Lin Jun or the Xiangwang Tianzi, because the latter are ethnic deities of the Tujia, they nevertheless had a closer connection with the daily life of the Tujia people, with a very broad range of duties, greater practicality, and more frequent sacrifices. In the past, the Tujia people, whether for great or small matters—from neighborhood disputes and entanglements to illness and war—would invariably pray to the White Emperor Heavenly Kings. The many functions of the White Emperor Heavenly Kings have been recorded by many predecessors.
The Qing dynasty "Longshan County Gazetteer" records: East of the city there is the White Emperor Heavenly Kings Temple. "When ill, people go to the temple to pray for blessings, vowing offerings of livestock and sweet wine. Upon recovery, they repay the vow, setting up a canopy outside the main gate and offering the Heavenly Kings' spirit tablet. They slaughter the livestock, arrange the sweet wine and food, burn yellow wax incense, and have a shaman perform rituals and sacrifices. Afterward, they invite clan members and in-laws to sit on the ground and drink freely, then disperse. When neighbors quarrel, or when one is wronged and cannot clear oneself, all swear before the deities and immediately resolve the matter." It can be said that the White Emperor Heavenly Kings were the protective deities of Tujia daily life.
Once war with other ethnic groups occurred, the White Emperor Heavenly Kings also became the war gods of the Tujia, and the Tujia devoutly believed that the White Emperor Heavenly Kings as war gods were especially efficacious and especially awe-inspiring. The Guangxu third year (1877) "Qianzhou Subprefecture Gazetteer" records: [text incomplete].
In the sixtieth year, the Miao rebelled. More than three hundred residents near Yaxi took refuge in the Miao Temple (White Emperor Heavenly Kings Temple). The Miao swarmed there, standing in a ring outside the temple. A fierce Miao warrior wanted to enter the temple and commit violence, but upon reaching the doorway, he spat blood and died on the spot. The crowd of Miao fled in shock, and afterward none dared plot to harm the refugees in the temple.
In early April, the Miao were farming outside the temple (White Emperor Heavenly Kings Temple). The refugees fled by night, and the deities silently protected them, so that they all reached Lu City. When the Miao rebelled, the people of Lu fled and scattered, and the city became empty. The Qian refugees, being hotly pursued, discussed among themselves defending Lu City to take temporary refuge. That night, they all dreamed of the deity instructing them: 'You shall temporarily stay in Lu City, but the strategic pass at Hutou Bridge should be guarded; I can silently protect you.' The next morning, they recounted their dreams and found them identical, so they discussed selecting forty able-bodied men to guard the pass. The Miao indeed came swarming; being few against many, just as the situation was critical, a violent storm suddenly raged, and the Miao were broken and fell to the banks, many drowning, and only then did they retreat and flee.
When the Chen-Yuan Dao official Fu Nai attacked and suppressed the Yangmeng and other stockades, his troops had not yet assembled, and tens of thousands of Miao besieged him for six days and nights. Fu Nai charged the enemy lines alone on horseback, and the Miao thought he could be captured. When they drew near, they were shocked to see the three Heavenly Kings appear behind the rider. The Miao crowd fled in panic, and the chief rebel was captured.
From the above records, it can be seen that the White Emperor Heavenly Kings, as war gods and protective deities of the Tujia or a portion of the Han, were primarily directed against the Miao. Therefore, the Miao who lived in the same areas as the Tujia mostly did not believe in the White Emperor Heavenly Kings. According to records, although in some places there were Miao who worshipped the White Emperor Heavenly Kings, their numbers were extremely limited, and most likely they did so out of helplessness. The Qianlong twenty-eighth year (1763) "Yongshun Prefecture Gazetteer" records: "The White Emperor Heavenly Kings deity—it is unknown whence it originated—is revered by the Miao. This is so everywhere in Qian and Sui. Now in the four counties under Yong, there are also many Miao villages, and Miao customs are no different, yet no temples are heard of. This is because this land was originally the territory of the native officials, where the Tujia were powerful and the Miao were weak." This record shows that few Miao believed in the White Emperor Heavenly Kings, while many did not. Only the Miao of "Qian and Sui and various places" believed in the White Emperor Heavenly Kings, while the Miao of the "four counties under Yong" did not, because no White Emperor Heavenly Kings temples are found in these places. However, the above gazetteer's explanation is: the many Miao villages in the "four counties under Yong" did not establish White Emperor Heavenly Kings temples because these places were originally areas where the Tujia (Tujia ethnic group) were powerful. This explanation clearly does not conform to historical reality. It should be explained in precisely the opposite way: the reason the "four counties under Yong" had no White Emperor Heavenly Kings temples is that the area had numerous Miao villages and was a place where Miao power was strong; the Miao could avoid the influence of Tujia religion and need not reluctantly believe in the Tujia White Emperor Heavenly Kings deity, so they did not establish his temples.
In places where Tujia and Miao lived together, most Miao did not believe in the White Emperor Heavenly Kings because White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship was a religion brought from the Shu region by the Tujia ancestors, the Ba people, and was the traditional religion of the Tujia; while the small number of Miao who did believe in the White Emperor Heavenly Kings reflects the mutual exchange between Tujia and Miao and the mutual penetration of Tujia and Miao cultures. Of course, it cannot be denied that the White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship of the Tujia or Han contained elements derogatory to the Miao people during certain historical periods, which is something we must explain when studying White Emperor Heavenly Kings worship.
IV. Tujia Rituals for Sacrificing to the White Emperor Heavenly Kings
The Tujia ritual of sacrificing to the White Emperor Heavenly King inherits both the Shu-region tradition of sacrificing to the Bamboo King and the ethnic group's own ancient traditions of sacrificing to the White Tiger and to ancestral spirits.
1. The inherited portion of the Bamboo King sacrifice ritual is closely related to the myth of the Bamboo King. Although this part of the ritual came from the Han Chinese, it exerted a great influence on Tujia culture.
There is no recorded account of the Shu-region Ba people's ritual of sacrificing to the Bamboo King White Emperor Heavenly King, and the details are no longer verifiable. However, from other sacrificial rituals and customs of the Ba people and the Tujia, some traces can still be found.
The renowned Zhuzhi Ci (Bamboo Branch Songs) originated from the Ba people, the ancestors of the Tujia, and were sacrificial songs of the ancient Ba people. This type of sacrificial song had to be accompanied by a short flute made from a bamboo branch, hence it was called Zhuzhi Ci, or Zhuzhi Ge (Bamboo Branch Song). Singing Zhuzhi songs accompanied by a short bamboo-branch flute should have been part of the ritual of sacrificing to the Bamboo King White Emperor Heavenly King, for the following reasons:
First, it is already an established conclusion that Zhuzhi Ci originated from the Ba people, and the Ba people's creation of Zhuzhi Ci must have been related to their being influenced by the bamboo totem culture of the Shu region and their acceptance of the worship of the Shu-region Bamboo King White Emperor Heavenly King.
The Tang dynasty poet Chen Ji clearly stated in his poem that Zhuzhi Ci was a Ba people's tune: "The Zhuzhi I have heard is already a Ba people's tune; the cassia tree is still heard in the Chu traveler's song."
Under the entry "Zhuzhi" in Volume 81 of the Yuefu Shiji (Collection of Music Bureau Poems) compiled by Guo Maoqian of the Song dynasty, it says:
Zhuzhi originally came from Bayu. During the Zhenyuan era of the Tang, Liu Yuxi, in Yuan and Xiang, finding the folk songs crude and vulgar, composed nine new Zhuzhi Ci after the manner of the Sao poet's Jiu Ge, and taught the children of the neighborhood to sing them; from this they flourished during the Zhenyuan era.
The Bayu Zhuzhi Ci that Liu Yuxi encountered were sacrificial songs of the Ba people. The Jiu Tang Shu (Old Book of Tang), in the "Biography of Liu Yuxi," states this very clearly:
Yu Xi spent ten years in Langzhou, cultivating his temperament solely through writing and reciting poetry. The barbarian customs favored shamanism; at every excessive shrine offering with drumming and dancing, they would invariably sing vulgar lyrics. Yu Xi sometimes took part in these, and then composed new lyrics after the manner of the Sao poet, to teach the shamans and invocators. Therefore, among the barbarian songs in the Wuling streams and caves, most were Yu Xi's lyrics.
The "vulgar lyrics" in "at every excessive shrine offering with drumming and dancing, they would invariably sing vulgar lyrics" are precisely Zhuzhi Ci, sacrificial songs sung during "excessive shrine offerings with drumming and dancing." The Xin Tang Shu (New Book of Tang), in "Biographies No. 93," states it even more directly and clearly:
When Emperor Xianzong ascended the throne, Shuwen and his associates fell from power; Yu Xi was demoted to be prefect of Lianzhou, and before arriving, was further banished to be sima of Langzhou.
The prefecture bordered the various Yi peoples of Yelang; the customs were extremely crude, and families delighted in shamanic ghosts. At every sacrifice, they sang Zhuzhi, with drumming and blowing lingering,
and the sound was coarse and chaotic. Yu Xi said that Qu Yuan, dwelling among the Yuan and Xiang rivers, composed the Jiu Ge, enabling the Chu people to welcome and send off spirits,
so he relied on its melodies and composed more than ten Zhuzhi Ci. Thereupon the Wuling barbarians all sang them.
Liu Yuxi compared the Zhuzhi Ci circulating in the Shu region to the Jiu Ge that Qu Yuan created based on the sacrificial songs of the Chu region, indicating that he considered Zhuzhi Ci also to be sacrificial songs for welcoming and sending off spirits.
The Kuizhou Fu Zhi (Gazetteer of Kuizhou Prefecture) records the custom of singing Zhuzhi songs to sacrifice to spirits in the Shu region. Wanzhou: "On the seventh day of the first month, the young men and women of the market towns on the Emei shoals of the Jiangnan perform chicken-egg divination, beat small drums, and sing Zhuzhi Ci." Kaizhou: "The customs all emphasize the field god; in spring they carve wood for devout prayer, in winter they use livestock for thanksgiving sacrifices; evil shamans beat drums for their chanted sacrifices, and men and women all sing Zhuzhi Ci." These records all clearly indicate that the Zhuzhi Ci of the Ba region were originally inseparable from the shamans' song-and-dance sacrificial rites.
So, to which spirits were these sacrificial songs, the Zhuzhi songs (Ci), mainly used for sacrifice? Besides the "shamanic ghosts" mentioned above, there should also be the White Emperor Heavenly King, son of the Bamboo King. Bai Juyi's poems recount that the places where the poet heard the Ba people sing Zhuzhi Ci were always at the White Emperor Heavenly King temple, indicating that the Ba people's Zhuzhi Ci may have been related to the White Emperor Heavenly King and were songs for sacrificing to the White Emperor Heavenly King.
Bai Juyi's "Zhuzhi Ci":
At the mouth of Qutang Gorge the cold mist hangs low; above White Emperor City the moon sinks westward. When the singing of Zhuzhi reaches the point of choking sobs, the cold gibbons and the clear-voiced birds all cry out at once.
And again:
Above White Emperor City spring grass grows; below White Salt Mountain the Shu River is clear. Southerners come up and sing a song; northerners on the paths are stirred with homesickness.
Here, the Zhuzhi Ci that Bai Juyi heard were precisely the songs sung by the Ba people when sacrificing to the White Emperor Heavenly King.
Second, Zhuzhi Ci had to be accompanied by a short flute, and the short flute was made from a bamboo branch. This instrument used in sacrifice may have originated from the Shu-region myth of the Bamboo King White Emperor Heavenly King, and is related to the Bamboo King's birth from bamboo; playing music with bamboo was intended as commemoration.
Liu Yuxi's preface to "Zhuzhi Ci" says: "The songs of the four directions differ in fragrance but share the same joy. In the first month of the year, I came to Jianping; the children of the neighborhood sang Zhuzhi in chorus, blowing short flutes to set the rhythm." "Blowing short flutes to set the rhythm" indicates that singing Zhuzhi songs required accompaniment by short flutes. Liu Yuxi's preface to "Autumn Moon on Dongting" says: "The Ba boy rowing the oars sings Zhuzhi; the traveler behind the connected masts blows a Qiang flute." The Qiang flute here is also the short flute mentioned above. Singing Zhuzhi Ci accompanied by a short flute may have originated from the myth of the Bamboo King, father of the White Emperor Three Heavenly Kings, being born from bamboo, and should be an instrument that arose from the Ba people's sacrifice to the White Emperor Heavenly King. This instrument is the later Tujia "dongdong kui." The "dongdong kui" is whittled from a bamboo branch, the thickness of a chopstick, about three inches long, precisely the Ba people's short flute that Liu Yuxi referred to. The "dongdong kui," besides being played by young people in ordinary times, is mainly used for the hand-waving dance, and is a wind instrument that accompanies the hand-waving dance for sacrificing to spirits. The Qing dynasty Tujia poet Peng Yongxing depicted the scene of dancing the hand-waving dance, blowing the "dongdong kui," and singing Zhuzhi songs: "Before the hand-waving hall there are many splendid gatherings; the girls, sleeves linked, slowly sing as they walk. The dongdong drums mingle with murmuring words; at the end, a cry of 'ho yue ho.'" "Ho yue ye ho" is precisely the refrain of Zhuzhi, indicating that what was sung was indeed Zhuzhi songs. Here is a passage of a spirit-honoring Zhuzhi song as proof:
No one sings, so I begin, (ho yue ho)
Today I raise a ten-thousand-flower tower, (ho yue ho, ho yue ho)
The old honor the spirits and gain fortune and longevity, (ho yue ho)
The young honor the spirits and have no sorrow. (ho yue ho, ho yue ho, ho yue ho)
Why were sacrificial songs accompanied by a short flute or "dongdong kui"? There can be only one explanation: this sacrificial rite accompanied by a short flute was originally used only for sacrificing to the White Emperor Heavenly King, third son of the Bamboo King, because the myth says that the White Emperor Heavenly King's father, the Bamboo King, was born from bamboo, so people used bamboo flutes in their sacrificial activities.
In sacrificing to the White Emperor Heavenly King, the Tujia not only continued the forms developed in the Shu region but also employed their own ethnic group's traditional ritual forms; this was necessary for the Tujia-ization of the White Emperor Heavenly King worship. The Tujia traditional rituals used for sacrificing to the White Emperor Heavenly King mainly refer to the blood sacrifice ritual of worshipping the White Tiger totem and the Lin Jun ancestor. Every year on the third day of the third month, traditionally believed to be the birthday of the White Emperor Heavenly King, the Tujia would kill an ox or a pig and go to the White Emperor Heavenly King temple to hold sacrificial activities. During the sacrifice, the shaman had to draw a cross on his forehead with ox blood or pig blood, commonly called "opening the blood mouth." "Opening the blood mouth" is a surviving custom of the Tujia blood sacrifice to the White Tiger and the Lin Jun spirit.
There is also a ritual of eating cat blood to sacrifice to the White Emperor Heavenly King, which also originated from the White Tiger sacrifice ritual. Volume 11 of the Fenghuang Ting Zhi (Gazetteer of Fenghuang Prefecture) records: "In their veneration of the White Emperor Heavenly King, every year before the Minor Heat festival, from the chen day to the si day, they prohibit slaughtering and selling, abstain from hunting with hooks, do not wear red, and do not make music; only after offering livestock do they lift the prohibition. If slightly remiss, there will be disasters of disease and pestilence, hence their devotion. Those with grievances must report to the temple and swear before the spirits, pricking a cat and dripping its blood into wine, drinking it to pledge their hearts, which is called 'eating blood'; three days after 'eating blood,' they must slaughter livestock to fulfill their vows, which is called 'repenting of sins and doing ghosts.' On entering the temple they must walk on their knees with trembling thighs, not daring to look up; those with guilty consciences hesitate and dare not drink. Their oath must be: 'If you have wronged me, may I greatly prosper and flourish; if I have wronged you, may I die nine deaths and be nine times cut off,' and they even invoke their descendants. No matter whether the matter is great or small, after 'eating blood' there is no going back; otherwise even official judgment cannot settle it." The cat here symbolizes the tiger; eating cat blood is like eating tiger blood, and eating tiger blood indicates that the sacrificer has a blood relationship with the tiger and can exchange blood with each other; their oath must come from the heart and accord with the facts, otherwise they will suffer punishment from the totem White Tiger, "nine deaths and nine times cut off." This was originally a Tujia ritual for sacrificing to the White Tiger spirit; applying this ritual to the sacrifice of the White Emperor Heavenly King shows the degree of Tujia worship of the White Emperor Heavenly King, which can almost be mentioned in the same breath as White Tiger worship. Of course, using the ethnic group's ancient sacrificial rituals to sacrifice to the White Emperor Heavenly King also had the effect of branding the White Emperor Heavenly King worship with Tujia ethnic characteristics and making it easier for the Tujia people to accept and identify with it.