Study of Institutional Culture in Ancient Tujia Society—Religious System Culture (III)
Section 3: Religious Practitioners. Religion is a social activity, so organization is indispensable to its existence. The fundamental basis and condition for the formation of religious organizations and the establishment of religious systems lies in the communal or social nature of religious belief. As religious activities move toward specialization, various independent...
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Section III Religious Practitioners
Religion is a social activity, and therefore organization is indispensable to its existence. The fundamental basis and condition for the formation of religious organizations and the establishment of religious institutions lies in the collective or social nature of religious belief. When religious activity develops in the direction of specialization, various independent organizational forms, unique types of facilities, unique training methods, and professional religious practitioners all become inevitable requirements of the religious system. "If religious organization is a mass association of believers carrying out organized belief in and worship of the object of belief, playing the role of a bridge connecting believers (people) and the object of belief (gods), then the clergy in religious organizations are likewise the intermediaries between people and gods, the builders of this bridge, and it may even be said that they are this bridge itself."
Thus, religious practitioners, or clergy, because they are proficient in the knowledge and skills of religious ritual, become special figures who communicate the relationship between gods and people and occupy the core position in religious organizations. In Tujia areas, sacrificial personnel engaged in primitive religious activities are called "Tima," and religious practitioners engaged in textual religion are called "Daoist priests."
I. Tima
In Tujia areas, the custom of "favoring excessive sacrifices and emphasizing ghosts and spirits" prevailed. The wizards engaged in primitive religious activities are called "Tima." Translated according to the Tujia language, "ti" means "to worship gods," and "ma" means "person"; thus "Tima" means "person who worships gods." In Chinese dialect, "Tima" is called "Tulaoshi" or "Tulaosi," and is also called Duangong. If tracing its origin, it can be said to come from "Wu Xian"; in the Qin and Han periods there were already records of "sacrificing and making Mount Wu" and "Jing shamans in the ancestral hall, belonging to the categories of Wu Xian, Wu Ling, and Shi Mi." The earliest wizards to appear among the Tujia were female, and when the Tima performed rituals they had to wear two typical female garments: the phoenix crown and the eight-panel skirt. By the time of the native chieftain period, the Tima were already all male.
As sacrificial personnel of the Tujia primitive religion, the Tima not only presided over folk sacrificial rituals, but also presided over folk marriage customs and mediated civil disputes; they were the holders of both divine authority and clan authority. At the same time, they were cultural transmitters familiar with the ethnic group's history, myths, legends, and other ethnic culture, and they all understood medicine and practiced medical arts. Therefore, the Tima enjoyed relatively high social status in Tujia society. The Tima had a specific inheritance system, generally a familial transmission along a direct bloodline system of father to son and son to grandson. Therefore, the group of Tima conducting sacrificial activities was often called an "altar." Members within an altar were basically several or a dozen Tima from the same family or with kinship relations, and among them one Tima with senior generation, greater age, and stronger ritual power served as the head of the altar, namely the "altar master."
Tima is the spokesperson of the gods, able to "face the gods" to express people's prayers, to relieve people's troubles, eliminate disasters and cure illnesses, and bless the prosperity of the family. The function of Tima is to coordinate the relationship between humans and supernatural ghosts and gods; its essence is to coordinate the relationship between humans and nature, and between humans and humans. In order to coordinate the relationship between humans and nature, they organized various sacrificial activities; in order to coordinate the relationship between humans and humans, in the face of illness and death, they organized religious rituals such as exorcising ghosts and curing diseases, summoning souls, and Chongnuo. Divination constituted the entire content of Tima's religious sacrifices and shamanic activities.
Tima is the presider over religious rituals such as sacrificing to the Great King, sacrificing to ancestors, and praying for a good harvest. Historical records state: "Every year from the third to the seventeenth day of the first lunar month, men and women gather together, beating gongs and drums, singing and dancing, called 'Hand-waving.'" "Hand-waving" is in fact the Tujia people's ancestor-worship and harvest-praying activity, and is divided into two types: "Great Hand-waving" and "Small Hand-waving." The "Great Hand-waving" mainly sacrifices to the Eight Tribes Great Gods; the sacrificial site is at the Eight Tribes Great Gods Temple, where Tima leads the singing of the "Song of Praise to the Eight Tribes Great Kings" and pays respects to the Eight Tribes Great Gods. The "Small Hand-waving" is to honor the Tuwang; the presider is still Tima, and the sacrificial site is in front of the Tuwang Temple. First Tima prays, then leads the singing of hand-waving songs and dances the hand-waving dance to offer to the Great King. Finally, a pig and a dog are killed as sacrifices; when slaughtering, a hole must first be pierced through the belly of the pig and dog, and a hand reached in to take out the heart and liver to offer to the gods. After the sacrifice is completed, each person receives a piece of meat, which each takes home to remove the hair and cook and eat, called "removing the inauspicious to pray for the year," which can ensure favorable weather and a healthy and peaceful year.
Tima's ritual activities for exorcising ghosts and curing diseases mainly take two forms: "returning vows" and "untying knots." "Returning vows" is a relatively large-scale ritual activity conducted by household, aimed at rewarding and thanking the gods and eliminating disasters and illnesses for people. When a person or household in the previous year informed Tima, the incarnation of the gods, of what they sought—curing illness or eliminating disaster—and requested Tima to perform "divine arts" and pray for the blessings of the gods, and made a vow to thank the gods, then after the elimination of illness and disaster showed results, the person or household head would invite Tima in the following year to hold a "returning vows" activity to thank the gods. The "returning vows" activity lasts a relatively long time, beginning on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month and ending on the fifteenth day of the tenth lunar month. During this period, a presiding Tima would perform seven or eight sessions of "returning vows," each lasting three consecutive days and nights. Its ritual procedures differ somewhat according to region and lineage, but the main procedures and basic content are largely the same, including "pacifying the gods," "sacrificing to the Tuwang," "inviting the master," "inviting the gods," "Luo gods," "raising and dispatching troops," "sitting on the horse," "descending to Yangzhou," "breaking into the underworld," "crossing the Heavenly River," "ascending to the Heavenly Altar," "resolving evil," and "sweeping the hall." "Untying knots" is a smaller-scale ritual activity than "returning vows," aimed at driving out ghosts and expelling evil. If someone suffers from a long illness without recovery, it is believed to be "evil gods possessing the body," and a session of "untying knots" must be performed; if someone lacks energy and has nightmares that startle them from bed, it is called "a wronged soul demanding a debt," and a session of "untying knots" must also be performed. "Untying knots" generally requires only one Tima to preside, only a sheep is killed, not an ox, and no banquet is held. The ritual activities of "untying knots" are "inviting the gods," "expelling evil," and "sending off ghosts," interspersed with contents such as "climbing the knife ladder" and "treading the fire pit."
Presiding over funeral rituals is also one of Tima's important functions. Before the "Gaituguiliu" (replacement of native officials with centrally appointed officials), Tujia areas had burial customs such as earth burial, cremation, and cliff burial, and all funeral rituals were presided over by Tima. The family of the deceased set up an offering table before the coffin, on which various offerings were placed. The presiding master led the other Tima in circling the table, beating drums and singing, singing while dancing, and other funeral participants also joined the mourning dance. The mourning dance team could number as few as several or a dozen people, or as many as dozens or hundreds, commonly called "beating around the coffin." Tima danced while singing; the lyrics had fixed procedures, such as "Ten Dreams" and "Pregnancy," and some were improvised, singing from the first half of the night until dawn the next day, until the funeral procession departed.
The religious rituals Tima performs to seek children and bless children's smooth growth are one of the important contents of Tima's religious activities. The "Tima Songs" are shamanic words sung when Tima performs rituals, and among them are many contents about seeking children and continuing the family line, such as "Lord Heaven and Earth, Lady Heaven and Earth, if you want boys, give twelve boys; if you want girls, give twelve girls!" If a middle-aged couple has not given birth, and divination determines that evil ghosts have cut off the path of descendants and the Child-Sending Goddess cannot come over, then Tima is invited to perform the "driving away ghosts and building a bridge" ritual. Under normal circumstances, people seek children in the form of "returning vows for descendants." The sacrificial ritual is chosen between the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month and the fifteenth day of the tenth lunar month, and each ritual lasts as long as three days. During the child's growth, Tima is also invited to perform shamanic activities such as "beating the fetus," "crossing the passes," "occupying the directions," "shaking the baby," and "beating protection" to help the child safely pass the passes and grow healthily. "Beating the fetus" is to prevent the child from miscarrying and being entangled by the fetal god; "crossing the passes" is to help children pass through various dangerous junctures; "occupying the directions" is to prevent pregnant women from miscarrying or giving birth to strange fetuses; "shaking the baby," also called dancing for the Bodhisattva, is because of worry that the child may not grow smoothly, so Tima is invited to perform rituals and make vows; "beating protection" is to invite Tima to perform rituals to cut down demons and expel ghosts and subdue monsters for the child's smooth growth.
Tima's divination methods for rituals are varied, and divination runs through the entire process of Tima's ritual activities such as seeking children, exorcising ghosts and curing diseases, and sacrificing to ancestors. Using divination to communicate with the gods, control ghosts and spirits, infer good and bad fortune, and decide what rituals to perform is one of the most important contents of Tima's shamanic activities. Tima's divination methods include: the priest-knife divination, in which the priest-knife used by Tima for divination is decorated with five-colored cloth strips, tied to a handled iron ring several inches in diameter, and strung with nine, eleven, or thirteen small interlocking iron rings. After Tima shakes the priest-knife, different shapes appear with large and small iron rings separated, and good or bad fortune is judged by the differences in shape. Comb divination, judging good or bad fortune by the direction of the teeth when the comb falls to the ground. Chopstick divination, judging good or bad fortune by whether the chopsticks cross or separate when they fall to the ground. Life-and-Death Rock divination, on a palm-sized flat round pebble, one side is written "life" and the other "death," used for "life-and-death judgment" when "treading the knife ladder." Small Coin divination, using two small coins plated with silver and tossing them into the air, judging good or bad fortune by their turning or flat shapes when they land. Long Knife divination, raising a long knife above the head and flinging it backward horizontally, judging good or bad fortune by the direction of the knife tip when it lands. Bamboo Divination, the bamboo divination blocks used by Tima are divided into large blocks and small blocks; the large blocks are about seven inches long and the small blocks about five inches long. When Tima performs rituals, the bamboo blocks are thrown out, and good or bad fortune is judged by their landing shapes. If the bamboo heart faces up, it is "turning"; if it faces down, it is "flat." If both blocks are turning, it is a yang divination; if both blocks are flat, it is a yin divination; if one is turning and one is flat, it is a smooth divination.
II. Daoist Priests
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism were introduced into Tujia areas along with the introduction of Han culture. After these foreign religions merged into Tujia areas, they had a tremendous impact on the religious beliefs of the Tujia people, not only changing people's beliefs and concepts, but also changing the original religious rituals. "Wenjiao" is the product of the combination of the Tujia people's primitive religion with Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. Those who practice Wenjiao as a religious profession are called "Daoist priests," also known as "masters."
The inheritance system of Daoist priests is either father-to-son succession or master-to-disciple transmission. Those who obtain the qualification of Daoist priest must meet three conditions: having practiced the rituals for three consecutive years, being able to recite scriptures, and having practiced Wenjiao for generations; they must also hold a "transmission of the law" ceremony, that is, a graduation ceremony. When holding the "transmission of the law" ceremony, the master invites seven to more than ten colleagues and fellow believers from all directions, and seeks certification of the official position before the altar of Shakyamuni. Only after obtaining professional qualifications through the "transmission of the law" ceremony can a Daoist priest preside over major religious activities such as doing vegetarian feasts, holding jiao offerings, burying the dead, and delivering souls from purgatory.
When Daoist priests perform rituals, they must first set up thirteen divine altars, including those of the Buddha, Guanyin, Ksitigarbha, and the Ten Kings of Hell, hang red and blue cloth on the altars, offer the three sacrificial animals and vegetarian offerings, and present memorial texts. When performing rituals, they deliberately imitate the ancients, but the intention of chanting scriptures before the Buddha and seeking goodness runs throughout the entire religious activity. Although there are also episodes of inviting gods and manipulating ghosts, they are all mixed with concepts such as "karmic retribution," "yang actions receive yin retribution," and "yin and yang alternate." Through these religious activities, people are indoctrinated with ideas such as "the gods and immortals are great and must not be offended; the dark underworld sees clearly all human affairs; good and evil, good and bad, each has its own retribution."
The main functions of Daoist priests are to choose sites and foundations for people building houses, read feng shui, and rectify dragon veins; to deliver the souls of the dead, conduct land and water rites (also called doing vegetarian feasts), and bury the dead; to repent on behalf of the sick, pray to the gods for blessings, and reduce sins; to "hold the imperial jiao" for the locality, praying to the heavenly gods for blessings and to save the common people; and to "hold the pure jiao" for villages to drive out plague and epidemics, and so on. Daoist rituals aim to pray for the protection of the gods and to turn misfortune into good fortune. When Daoist priests perform rituals, they mainly chant scriptures, with singing and dancing as well. Many rituals are both sorrowful and joyful. In joy, they sing opera to reward the gods, with immortal music sounding and graceful dancing, symbolizing leading the dead soul into the paradise of ultimate bliss and the world of immortals; in sorrow, there are bitter winds and rain, heavy sorrowful mist, as if entering the dark underworld, from which there is no return after ten thousand kalpas. In the rituals of rewarding the gods, Daoist priests also must "offer repentance": sing "songs of rewarding the gods"; perform "operas congratulating the immortals." The entire ritual activity presents a condition of alternating brightness and darkness, alternating yin and yang, hooking ghosts and hooking immortals, making people feel that the Daoist priest has vast divine powers and boundless magical power.
Burying the dead is the specialized duty of Daoist priests. The funeral rituals presided over by Daoist priests generally require three to five days, and the timing of the rituals may also be appropriately adjusted according to the requirements of the bereaved family. A complete vegetarian feast and jiao ritual includes the following contents: First, calculate an auspicious day for burial and invite clan members, relatives, and friends to mourn the deceased. Second, set up the mourning hall, install the memorial tablet, and hang the soul-guiding banner. Third, set up the divine seats of the Buddha, Guanyin, Ksitigarbha, the Ten Kings of Hell, the Eighteen Arhats, the Five Directions Great Emperors, and the Three Thousand Truths; hang eleven divine pictures including those of the Ten Kings of Hell and Ksitigarbha; invite the gods to take their places and offer vegetarian offerings to them. Fourth, perform rituals, play music, and wail in mourning; offer wine and arrange offerings; "open the road" for the deceased and point out the road to the dark underworld. Fifth, Daoist priests chant scriptures, and the filial son leads the sacrifice, praising the virtues of the deceased and praying to the gods to pardon sins. Sixth, "closing the pass," when the direct relatives of the deceased finally open the coffin lid to view the remains and check whether there is anything improper so that it may be immediately remedied. Seventh, "circling the coffin," also called "beating around the coffin." This is chanting scriptures to deliver the dead soul; the ritual scene is very grand, aimed at wishing the dead soul an early ascent to the immortal realm, so it is also called "tour of the spirit, rewarding the gods, and blowing flower opera." Eighth, breaking hell. If the deceased died in an inauspicious manner, Daoist priests must be invited to perform rituals to help deliver the dead soul. Ninth, singing funeral songs, organized by Daoist priests and performed by Tujia artists, in forms such as chorus, antiphonal answering, and responsorial singing. Tenth, thanking the gods, pacifying the house, delivering souls, and summoning wealth, so that the bereaved family may prosper in both people and wealth. Eleventh, "sending off the spirit," so that the soul of the deceased may have no obstruction along the way. Twelfth, "responding to the sevens." Within forty-nine days after burial, family members must go to the grave hill and burn paper money seven times, both to express remembrance of the deceased and to send the dead soul early to the immortal realm. Thirteenth, "spirit mountain." Daoist priests write land-deed documents, invite the Five Directions Great Emperors to witness, and burn incense and paper before the grave to establish a contract for buying the mountain, so that the grave hill will not be occupied by wild ghosts. Fourteenth, "removing the spirit." After "responding to the sevens," Daoist priests are invited to burn the memorial tablet, belongings, and so on of the deceased before the grave. At this point, the entire burial ritual is concluded.
It should be explained that the Daoist priests of the Tujia people are not Daoists in the usual sense, but religious professionals who integrate Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, mainly believe in Buddhism, and are mainly engaged in funeral ritual activities. Although in the process of handling funerals and delivering souls, many of the ritual activities they perform, such as burial, offering sacrifices, doing vegetarian feasts, and pursuing souls, come from Daoism, they are more influenced by Buddhist thought. Therefore, it can be said that the Buddhist concept of karmic retribution dominates the entire vegetarian-feast rituals of the Daoist priests. Traces of Buddhist influence can be seen in the "Song of Sending Off the Dead" of Tujia funeral rituals. The "Song of Sending Off the Dead" says that after a person dies, the soul goes to the underworld, and wherever it goes there are "City God," "Boundary of Yin and Yang," "Bridge of Helplessness," "Wangtai Township," "Gate of Ghosts," "City of Unjust Death," and so on. At the same time, it must also pass through the Ten Halls and be judged by the Ten Kings of Hell, who decide the next life according to the good and evil of the deceased's actions while alive. This concept of karmic retribution is precisely the embodiment of the Buddhist idea of the cycle of life and death.