A Study of the Institutional Culture of Ancient Tujia Society — The Basic State of Tujia Cultural Research
Introduction. The Tujia are an ethnic minority long settled in the Wuling Mountains along the border regions of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou. Their distinctive geographical environment and profound cultural heritage gave rise to a unique mode of production, way of life, ethnic character, patterns of thought, and aesthetic sensibility. Over the course of long historical development, the Tujia people created their own material culture and institutional culture...
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Introduction
The Tujia are an ethnic minority of southern China who have lived for generations in the Wuling Mountains of the border region of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou. The special geographical environment and profound cultural accumulation gave rise to the Tujia's unique mode of production, way of life, ethnic character, thinking characteristics, and aesthetic tastes. In the long course of historical development, the Tujia people created their own material culture, institutional culture, and spiritual culture, greatly enriching the treasure house of Chinese culture and making important contributions to the development and prosperity of the Chinese nation.
In the 1950s, the Tujia were confirmed as a single ethnic community. Research on Tujia culture then emerged. A large number of experts and scholars devoted themselves to the field of Tujia cultural research; they worked diligently and explored tirelessly, producing many theoretically accomplished research results that laid a solid foundation for Tujia cultural research in the 21st century.
I. Basic Situation of Tujia Cultural Research
Looking at the development of Tujia cultural research, we can clearly see that it has gone through five stages. The first stage is the foundational stage (1950-1957). During this stage, scholars conducted investigations and research around the determination of the Tujia ethnic identity, focusing mainly on language, history, and other aspects. This accumulated a batch of precious field survey materials for Tujia cultural research and produced some research articles mainly introducing the Tujia, setting off the first upsurge in Tujia cultural research and laying a good foundation for later research. The second stage is the tortuous development stage (1957-1966). The expansion of the anti-Rightist movement beginning in 1957 caused some scholars who had participated in Tujia investigations and those who actively called for the implementation of Tujia autonomy to be criticized, which to a certain extent affected the in-depth development of Tujia cultural research. However, Tujia cultural research was not interrupted because of this; the Ethnic Minority Social History Investigation Group of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and relevant institutions in Hubei and Hunan all organized personnel to continue investigating Tujia society and formed a number of research results. The third stage is the stagnation stage (1966-1978). After the "Cultural Revolution" began, ethnological research suffered a tremendous impact, and Tujia cultural research also fell into a state of stagnation. Due to political interference, there were almost no relevant results in Tujia cultural research during this stage. The fourth stage is the revival stage (1978-1987). After the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Party, with the implementation of the Party's ethnic policies, the Exi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture and a number of autonomous counties were established one after another, providing policy support and organizational guarantees for Tujia cultural research. The National Ethnic Affairs Commission's "Five Series of Books on Ethnic Issues," as well as overviews of autonomous prefectures (counties), local chronicles, and ethnic survey materials, were published successively. The compilation and printing of literary and historical materials and Party history materials by the political consultative conferences of some prefectures and counties also powerfully promoted the in-depth development of Tujia cultural research. From then on, Tujia cultural research entered a historical period of recovery and development. The fifth stage is the comprehensive advancement stage (1987-present). In 1987, the implementation of regional ethnic autonomy in Tujia concentrated areas brought Tujia cultural research into a brand-new period of development. The main achievements of this stage are reflected in: first, the establishment of a number of research institutions; second, the carrying out of extensive and in-depth field investigations; third, the formation of a number of academic groups for Tujia studies; fourth, the convening of some large-scale academic conferences; fifth, the publication of a number of monographs on Tujia studies; sixth, the founding of an academic professional journal for Tujia studies—the Journal of Tujia Studies; seventh, the filming of some film and television productions about the Tujia; and eighth, the development and utilization of Tujia online information resources.
The continuous advancement of Tujia cultural research has not only promoted the in-depth development of Tujia cultural research but also provided rich information resources for people's research work. The author has briefly organized the collected documentary materials and summarizes them by category as follows.
(I) Compiled Materials Category
Research results in the compiled materials category mainly include ethnographies, local chronicles, place-name chronicles, local overviews, literary and historical materials, field survey materials, genealogies, and family records.
1. Ethnographies and Local Chronicles
Tujia concentrated areas include the Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture and the Enshi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture; Zhangjiajie City and Shimen County of Changde City; Yuanling and Xupu counties of Huaihua City; Shaojiang, Yanhe, Ennan, Dejiang, Tongjiang, Jiangkou and other counties and cities in the Tongren region; and Shizhu, Pengshui, Xiushan, Youyang, Qianjiang and other counties and cities in Chongqing, totaling 36 counties and cities. Most of these prefectures and counties (cities) have compiled and published ethnographies. The main ones collected are as follows:
Hubei Provincial Chronicle · Ethnic Groups (Liu Xiaoyu, Bai Guixi, Hubei People's Publishing House, 1997), Ethnic Chronicle of Exi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (compiled by the book's writing group, Sichuan Ethnic Publishing House, 1993), Ethnic Chronicle of Enshi City (Yuan Dehong et al., Sichuan Ethnic Publishing House, 1991), Ethnic Chronicle of Lichuan City (Pan Shunfu, Sichuan Ethnic Publishing House, 1991), Ethnic Chronicle of Badong County (Badong County Ethnic Affairs Commission, internal materials, 1997), Ethnic Chronicle of Hefeng County (Zhong Yiyun, Gong Guangmei, International Culture Publishing Company, 2001), Ethnic Chronicle of Xuan'en County (Gao Henfei et al., China Literature Publishing House, 2001), Hunan Provincial Chronicle · Ethnic Chronicle (Hong Hansong, Chen Yuqi, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1998), Ethnic Chronicle of Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (Zhang Yinghe, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1999), Guizhou Ethnic Minorities · Tujia (compiled by the book's writing group, Guizhou Ethnic Publishing House, 1991), Ethnic Chronicle of Sinan County (Qin Chaozhi, internal materials, 1988), Ethnic Chronicle of Tongren City (Tongren City Ethnic Affairs Commission, internal materials, 1989), Ethnic Chronicle of Jiangkou County (Huang Zixin, internal materials, 1990), Ethnic Chronicle of Dejiang County (Li Juexu, Guizhou Ethnic Publishing House, 1991).
The above ethnographies all record in considerable detail the historical origins, political systems, ethnic relations, ethnic work, ethnic culture, ethnic customs and habits, and ethnic historical figures of the various ethnic groups in their respective provinces, prefectures, and counties (cities), and most include appendices with precious materials such as ethnic investigation and identification records.
Since the 1980s, work on compiling new local chronicles has been carried out throughout the country, and the prefectures and counties (cities) in Tujia concentrated areas also established local chronicle offices and compiled and published their own local chronicles. Unless otherwise attributed, the following chronicles were all compiled by the local chronicle compilation committees.
Enshi Prefecture Chronicle (Hubei People's Publishing House, 1998), Laifeng County Chronicle (Hubei Lexicographical Publishing House, 1990), Xianfeng County Chronicle (Wuhan University Press, 1990), Hefeng County Chronicle (Hubei People's Publishing House, 1990), Badong County Chronicle (Hubei Science and Technology Press, 1993), Lichuan City Chronicle (Hubei Science and Technology Press, 1993), Jianshi County Chronicle (Hubei Lexicographical Publishing House, 1994), Xuan'en County Chronicle (Wuhan University of Technology Press, 1995), Enshi City Chronicle (Wuhan University of Technology Press, 1996), Changyang County Chronicle (China City Press, 1992), Wufeng County Chronicle (China City Press, 1994), Xiangxi Prefecture Chronicle (Hunan People's Publishing House, 1999), Huayuan County Chronicle (SDX Joint Publishing Company, 1993), Fenghuang County Chronicle (Hunan People's Publishing House, 1988), Guzhang County Chronicle (Bashu Book Society, 1989), Baojing County Chronicle (China Literature and History Press, 1990), Luxi County Chronicle (Social Sciences Academic Press, 1993), Dayong County Chronicle (SDX Joint Publishing Company, 1995), Yongshun County Chronicle (Hunan Publishing House, 1995), Jishou City Chronicle (Hunan Publishing House, 1996), Shiqian County Chronicle (Guizhou People's Publishing House, 1991), Wanshan Special District Chronicle (Guizhou People's Publishing House, 1992), Sinan County Chronicle (Yao Dunmu, Guizhou People's Publishing House, 1992), Yanhe Tujia and Miao Autonomous County Chronicle (Yang Futong, Guizhou People's Publishing House, 1993), Dejiang County Chronicle (Li Juexu, Guizhou People's Publishing House, 1994), Jiangkou County Chronicle (Xiong Chengnong, Guizhou People's Publishing House, 1994), Qianjiang County Chronicle (China Society Press, 1994), Shizhu County Chronicle (Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House, 1994), Pengshui County Chronicle (Sichuan People's Publishing House, 1998), Xiushan County Chronicle (Zhonghua Book Company, 2001).
In addition to compiling prefecture and county (city) chronicles, some places also published specialized chronicles, such as the Exi Agricultural Specialties Chronicle, the Hunan Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture Political Consultative Conference Chronicle, and the Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture Chronicle · Education Chronicle. These specialized chronicles focus on recording specific aspects of Tujia culture and also possess extremely high historical value.
2. Local Overviews and Place-Name Chronicles
Under the unified arrangements of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, the ethnic autonomous areas in Tujia concentrated regions all compiled their own local overviews. These introductory books are extremely numerous, with no fewer than several dozen kinds for each county (city), and most publications are internal materials, making them very difficult to count. Because such introductory books cover various aspects of Tujia concentrated areas such as the natural environment, historical relics, scenic spots, and customs and habits, they have become important reference materials for people studying the historical and contemporary issues of the Tujia. These publications introducing local overviews of Tujia areas mainly include: Overview of Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (Gong Baogui, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1985), Overview of Exi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (compiled by the book's writing group, Hubei People's Publishing House, 1990), Overview of Changyang Tujia Autonomous County (compiled by the book's writing group, Ethnic Publishing House, 1989), Overview of Wufeng Tujia Autonomous County (compiled by the book's writing group, Hubei People's Publishing House, 1989), Overview of Yanhe Tujia Autonomous County (compiled by the book's writing group, Guizhou Ethnic Publishing House, 1987), Overview of Yinjiang Tujia and Miao Autonomous County (compiled by the book's writing group, Guizhou Ethnic Publishing House, 1984), Brief Introduction to Shizhu Tujia Autonomous County (Li Yongwan et al., internal materials, 1984), Overview of Youyang Tujia and Miao Autonomous County (compiled by the book's writing group, Sichuan Ethnic Publishing House, 1986), Overview of Xiushan Tujia and Miao Autonomous County (compiled by the book's writing group, Sichuan Ethnic Publishing House, 1987), Overview of Pengshui Miao and Tujia Autonomous County (compiled by the book's writing group, Sichuan Ethnic Publishing House, 1989), Overview of Qianjiang Tujia and Miao Autonomous County (compiled by the book's writing group, Sichuan Ethnic Publishing House, 1990), Pengshui Encyclopedia (compiled by the book's writing group, Sichuan People's Publishing House, 1998), Overview of Scenic Spots in Hubei Ethnic Areas (Zhang Honglun, Ethnic Publishing House, 2001), Southeast Gate of Chongqing (Yang Zeling, Minzu University of China Press, 2001), and Scenic Highlights of Youzhou (Ran Guangda, Wu Shengyan, Chongqing Publishing House, 2001).
In the early 1980s, under the unified leadership of relevant central departments, place-name surveys were carried out throughout the country, and on this basis place-name chronicles were compiled for each county (city). The main place-name chronicles compiled by the counties (cities) in Tujia concentrated areas include: Place-Name Chronicle of Badong County, Hubei Province (1983), Place-Name Chronicle of Jianshi County, Hubei Province (1983), Place-Name Chronicle of Enshi, Hubei Province (1983), Place-Name Chronicle of Lichuan County, Hubei Province (1984), Place-Name Chronicle of Xuan'en County, Hubei Province (1983), Place-Name Chronicle of Xianfeng County, Hubei Province (1984), Place-Name Chronicle of Wufeng County, Hubei Province (1982), Place-Name Chronicle of Baojing County, Hunan (1982), Place-Name Chronicle of Luxi County, Hunan (1983), Place-Name Chronicle of Sangzhi County, Hunan (1983), Place-Name Chronicle of Longshan County, Hunan (1983), etc. Although individual administrative divisions in Tujia concentrated areas have been adjusted, especially changes in district and township administrative setups, which have caused some changes in the place names determined in the early 1980s, these place-name chronicles remain rare and valuable reference materials for studying grassroots organizations, geographical resources, history and culture, and other aspects of Tujia areas.
3. Literary and Historical Materials and Field Survey Materials
After the 1980s, Tujia cultural research entered a new stage. To meet the needs of Tujia cultural research, some scholars devoted themselves to collecting and organizing a batch of documentary materials and compiled, printed, and published them, providing great convenience for researchers. These literary and historical materials mainly include: Compilation of Historical Materials on the Rongmei Tusi (United Front Work Department of Hefeng County Party Committee, internal materials, 1984), Sequel to the Compilation of Historical Materials on the Rongmei Tusi (Yang Qingzhang, internal materials, 1993), "Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty"·Compilation of Guizhou Materials (Guizhou Institute of Ethnic Studies, Guizhou People's Publishing House, 1983), Compilation of Historical Materials on Ethnic Minorities in Exi (Exi Prefecture Ethnic Affairs Commission, internal materials, 1986), Compilation of Ethnic Materials of Eastern Sichuan (Editorial Committee of Eastern Sichuan Ethnic Materials, internal materials, 1986), Compilation of Historical Materials on Ethnic Minorities in Southeastern Sichuan (Qianjiang Region Ethnic Affairs Commission, Sichuan Ethnic Publishing House, 1995), Hunan Local Chronicles · Historical Materials on Ethnic Minorities (Volume I) (compiled by the book's writing group, Yuelu Book Society, 1991), Hunan Local Chronicles · Historical Materials on Ethnic Minorities (Volume II) (compiled by the book's writing group, Yuelu Book Society, 1992), Hunan Local Chronicles · Historical Materials on Ethnic Minorities (Volumes I and II) (Hunan Provincial Office for Ancient Books of Ethnic Minorities, Yuelu Book Society, 1992), "Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty"·Annotated Compilation of Historical Materials on Exi (Hefeng County Ethnic Affairs Commission, internal materials, 1993), Free Talks on the Tujia (Tian Jinggui, internal materials, 1995), Compendium of Primitive Religious Materials of China's Ethnic Groups: Tujia Volume · Yao Volume · Zhuang Volume · Li Volume (general editors-in-chief Lü Daji and He Yaohua, editors-in-chief Li Shaoming et al., China Social Sciences Press), Research on the Development of Ethnic Communities in China (Peking University Press, 2001), etc.
4. Family Records and Genealogies
Genealogies are another important source of materials for the study of Tujia culture. Historically, the powerful and prominent clans of the Tujia who lived in the border region of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, and Guizhou all left behind their own family genealogies and clan registers. In recent years, some scholars and institutions have begun to pay attention to Tujia clan culture, collecting and organizing a large amount of genealogical material. For example, "Compilation of Historical Materials on Ethnic Minorities in Southeastern Sichuan," "Compilation of Historical Materials on Ethnic Minorities in Western Hubei," and "Compilation of Materials on the Rongmei Tusi" all include some family and clan genealogy materials. Another example is the "Compilation of Changyang Genealogical Materials," printed in 2001 by the Changyang Ethnic and Religious Affairs Commission and other units.
(II) Monographs and Treatises
Research on Tujia culture began in the 1950s. Over the past fifty-plus years, through arduous theoretical research, scholars have produced a body of monographs on Tujia culture. We have divided these works into nine categories and briefly introduce them as follows.
1. Works on Tujia historical research
"Brief Compilation of Xiangxi Tusi" (Xie Hua, Zhonghua Book Company, 1959), "Ancient Ba-Shu" (Tong Enzheng, Sichuan People's Publishing House, 1979), "Brief Introduction to the Tujia of Xianfeng" (book compilation group, internal material, 1980), "Historical Figures of Western Hubei" (Tian He, internal material, 1983), "A Brief History of the Tujia" (Wu Yongzhang, Nationalities Publishing House, 1983), "A Brief History of the Tujia of Western Hubei" (Western Hubei Tujia Ethnic Gazetteer Compilation Committee, internal material, 1983), "The Tujia of Dayong" (Dayong Municipal Ethnic Affairs Commission, internal material, 1985), "The Tujia of Badong" (Badong County Ethnic Affairs Bureau, internal material, 1985), "A Brief History of the Tujia" (Wang Jubao, Liu Xiaoyu, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1986), "A Brief History of the Tujia of Lichuan" (Lichuan County Ethnic Gazetteer Compilation Group, internal material, 1986), "The Origins and Development History of China's Tusi System" (Wu Yongzhang, Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1988), "The Tujia" (Liu Yu, Nationalities Publishing House, 1989), "A History of Ethnic Groups in Central and South China" (Zhang Xiong, Guangxi People's Publishing House, 1989), "The Xizhou Bronze Pillar of Xiangxi and the Historical Origins of the Tujia" (Peng Wuyi, Central Nationalities Publishing House, 1989), "A Brief History of Tujia Tusi" (Wu Yongzhang, Huazhong University of Science and Technology Press, 1990), "A Brief History of Tujia Tusi" (Wang Chengyao, Luo Wu, Central Nationalities Institute Press, 1991), "Historical Records of Tujia Tusi" (Wang Chengyao et al., Yuelu Press, 1991), "Annotated 'Rongmei Jiyou'" (Gao Runshen, Tianjin Ancient Books Publishing House, 1991), "Studies on the Tujia of Jingnan" (Deng Heping, Central Nationalities Institute Press, 1992), "A History of Ethnic Relations in Central and South China" (Wu Yongzhang, Nationalities Publishing House, 1992), "China's Tusi System" (Gong Yin, Yunnan Nationalities Publishing House, 1992), "The Tujia of Yongshun" (Yongshun County Ethnic Affairs Commission, internal material, 1992), "Chronicle of Major Events of the Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (1949-1985)" (Jian Dinghua, Zhou Fangbai, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 1993), "Historical Figures of the Chinese Tujia" (Tian Jinggui, Nationalities Publishing House, 1993), "Exploring the Tujia of Northwestern Hunan" (Hong Kong Phoenix Publishing Company, 1993), "An Outline of Tusi Society in Western Hubei" (Hu Rao, Liu Donghai, Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1993), "Textual Research on the Xizhou Bronze Pillar and Its Inscriptions" (Peng Wuwen, Yuelu Press, 1994), "Exploring Xiangxi" (Xie Xinning, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 1994), "A Study of the Tujia of Songzi" (United Front Work Department of the Songzi Municipal Party Committee, internal material, 1996), "A History of Highways in Western Hubei" (Western Hubei Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture Highway History and Gazetteer Compilation and Review Committee, Wuhan Publishing House, 1996), "Changyang: Birthplace of the Tujia" (CPC Changyang Tujia Autonomous County Committee, Changyang Tujia Autonomous County People's Government, Changjiang Literature and Art Publishing House, 1998), "Rongmei Jiyou" (by Gu Cai of the Qing Dynasty, annotated by Wu Baisen, Hubei People's Publishing House, 1998), "Annotated Translation of Old Affairs of Zhugong" (by Yu Zhigu of the Tang Dynasty, translated and annotated by Yuan Huazhong, Hubei People's Publishing House, 1999), "Annotated Edition of Rongmei Jiyou" (originally by Gu Cai of the Qing Dynasty, annotated by Wu Baisen, Hubei People's Publishing House, 1999), "Historical Tales of the Tujia of Fenghuang" (Fenghuang County Ethnic Affairs Commission, internal material, 1999), "A History of the Tujia in the Past Century" (Chen Guo'an, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 1999), "Studies on the Origins of the Chinese Tujia" (Deng Heping, Hubei People's Publishing House, 2000), "A Brief History of Xiangxi: From 20,000 Years Ago to 1949" (Liao Baobai, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1999), "A Century of Veritable Records of the Tujia" (book editorial committee, Chinese Literature and History Press, 2000), "A Cultural History of the Tujia" (Duan Chao, Nationalities Publishing House, 2000), "A History of the Rise and Fall of Tujia Tusi" (Tian Min, Nationalities Publishing House, 2000), "An Overview of Tangya Tusi" (Liu Wenzheng, Wu Wei, International Culture Publishing Company, 2000), "A History of Ethnic Minorities in Hunan" (You Jun, Li Hanlin, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001), "Eight Hundred Years of Xizhou Tusi" (Peng Jianqiu, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001), "Studies on Yumu Stockade" (Tan Zongpai, International Culture Publishing Company, 2001), "A Brief History of the Tujia Revolutionary Struggle" (Hu Jimin, Hu Yuan, Central Nationalities University Press, 2002).
2. Works on Tujia philosophy and religion
"First Compilation on the Religions of China's Ethnic Minorities" (book compilation group, Yunnan People's Publishing House, 1985, in which Liu Xiaoyu wrote "Tujia Religion"), "A Genetic Interpretation of Tujia Culture" (Zhu Bingxiang, Central Nationalities University Press, 1999), "A Philosophical Study of Tujia Oral Culture" (Xiao Hong'en, Central Nationalities University Press, 1999), "The Traditional Ethics and Morals of the Tujia and Their Modern Transformation" (Zhou Xingmao, Central Nationalities University Press, 1999), "Daoism and Tujia Culture" (Deng Honglei, Nationalities Publishing House, 1999), "Brahma Heaven and Buddha Land" (Yinjiang Tujia and Miao Autonomous County Ethnic and Religious Affairs Bureau, Guizhou People's Publishing House, 2000), "An Ethical Analysis of Culture: On the Ethical Culture of Xiangxi" (Zheng Yingjie, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 2000), "A Philosophical Study of Tujia Ritual and Ceremonial Culture" (Xiao Hong'en, Central Nationalities University Press, 2002).
3. Works on Tujia customary culture
"Gazetteer of Tujia Customs" (Yang Changxin, Central Nationalities Institute Press, 1989), "Customs of the Chinese Tujia" (Tian Jinggui, Chinese Literature and History Press, 1991), "A History of the Origins of Southern Ethnic Cultures" (Wu Yongzhang, Guangxi Education Press, 1991), "Tujia Culture" (Peng Guanzhang, Jilin Education Press, 1991), "A Treasury of Tujia Customs" (Luo Shisong et al., Chinese Literature and History Press, 1991), "Customs of Western Hubei" (Tian He, Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1991), "The Tujia of Youshui, Eastern Sichuan" (Li Shaoming, Chengdu Publishing House, 1993), "A Record of Tujia Customs" (Bai Xinmin, Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1993), "Folk Customs of Western Hubei" (Miao Kangqing, Jianghan Tribune, 1993 special issue), "Folk Culture of Northern Guizhou" (book compilation group, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 1993), "Dejiang Nuotang Opera" (Li Hualin, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 1993), "Sinan Nuotang Opera" (Sinan County Ethnic Affairs Commission, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 1993), "Ancient Ways of the Yi River" (Gong Fada, People's Publishing House, 1993), "Folk Culture of Xiangxi" (Central Nationalities Institute Press, 1993), "Exploring the Tujia of Northwestern Hunan" (Hong Kong Phoenix Publishing Company, 1993), "Transformation, Interaction, Reconstruction: Studies on Tujia Cultural Phenomena" (Meng Lijun et al., Nationalities Publishing House, 1993), "A Winding Return: Notes on an Investigation of Tujia Culture in Youshui, Sichuan" (Li Xingxing, Shanghai Sanlian Bookstore, 1994), "Elegance of Yinjiang" (Wen Zhigao, Guizhou People's Publishing House, 1995), "Ethnic Customs of Zhangjiajie City" (Dai Chuzhou, Yuelu Press, 1997), "A Probe into Contemporary Ethnic Culture of Xiangxi" (Yang Minghua, Yang Dong, Ethnic Forum, 1998 special issue), "An Introduction to the Traditional Culture of the Tujia of Western Hubei" (Tian Fagang, Tan Xiao, Changjiang Literature and Art Publishing House, 1998), "Cultural Gazetteers of the Tujia, Jingpo, Qiang, Pumi, Dulong, Achang, Lhoba, and Monba" (Qin Shicui et al., Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1998), "Ba Style and Tujia Rhyme" (Dong Luo, Wuhan University Press, 1999), "A Gem of Nuo Culture in Western Hubei: Returning the Altar to the Gods" (Lei Xiang, Central Nationalities University Press, 1999), "The Cultural Spirit of the Tujia" (Hu Bingzhang, Nationalities Publishing House, 1999), "Ethnic Customs of Xiangxi" (Zhang Yinghe et al., Yuelu Press, 1999), "Market Culture of Xiangxi" (Ma Gensheng, Hunan Normal University Press, 1999), "A History of Nuo Customs" (Qian Fu, Guangxi Nationalities Publishing House, Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House, 2000), "A Record of Ethnic Customs of Fenghuang County" (Chen Qigui, Central Nationalities University Press, 2000), "Human Relations in Marriage Customs: A Perspective on the Marriage Customs of the Ethnic Groups of Xiangxi" (Yao Jinquan, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 2000), "Hefeng Nuo Vow Opera" (Xiang Guoping et al., International Culture Publishing Company, 2001), "A Grand Dictionary of Xiangxi Culture" (Ma Benli, Yuelu Press, 2001), "A New Compilation of the General Gazetteer of Tujia Culture" (Peng Yingming, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001), "Entering the Tujia Mountain Villages: A Record of Tujia Customs in Guizhou" (Tian Yonghong, Guizhou People's Publishing House, 2001), "Voice of the Great Soul: A Secret History of the Spirit of the Ba People" (Cai Yuanxiang, Central Nationalities University Press, 2001), "Tujia White Tiger Culture" (Huang Baiquan, China Federation of Literary and Art Circles Publishing House, 2001), "Tujia Folk Beliefs and Culture" (Xiang Baisong, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001), "Transformation and Development: Studies on Social and Cultural Change in Contemporary Tujia Society" (Bai Guixi, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001), "Essays on Tujia Folk Culture" (Cao Yi, Central Nationalities University Press, 2002), "Tujia Marriage Customs and Wedding Songs" (Chen Tingliang, Peng Nanjun, Nationalities Publishing House, 2005).
4. Works on Tujia literature
"Legend of Nü'er Stockade: A Collection of Tujia Folk Tales" (Han Zhizhong, Changjiang Literature and Art Publishing House, 1985), "Tujia Folk Tales" (Liu Changgui, Peng Linxu, Chongqing Publishing House, 1986), "Tujia Folk Songs" (Song Yupeng et al., Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1987), "Tujia Folk Songs" (Li Yongpu, Shandong People's Publishing House, 1987), "In the Homeland of Brother Chun and the Golden Pheasant: Stories of the Tujia" (Ouyang Song, Xiang Tiangui, Hunan Juvenile and Children's Publishing House, 1988), "Tima Songs" (Peng Rongde, Wang Chengyao, Yuelu Press, 1989), "Tujia Flower Lantern Lyrics" (Zhang Rufei, Xiao Tian, Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1989), "A History of Tujia Literature" (Peng Jikuan, Yao Jipeng, Hunan Literature and Art Publishing House, 1989), "Selected Tujia Folk Tales" (Gui Xiuwen, Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House, 1989), "Selected Folk Songs of Tian Maozhong" (Yang Guoxiang, China Folk Literature and Art Publishing House, 1989), "Selected Poems by Tujia Men of Letters Through the Ages" (Peng Bo, Yuelu Press, 1991), "Selected Poems and Lyrics from Wanqiu Hall" (Tian Xingliu, Yuelu Press, 1992), "Annotated Poems of Peng Qiutan" (Yang Faxing, Chen Jinxiang, China Three Gorges Publishing House, 1992), "Crying Marriage Songs" (Peng Jikuan, Peng Bo, Yuelu Press, 1993), "A Collection of Proverbs of Western Hubei" (Western Hubei Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture Ethnic Affairs Commission, Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1993), "Affection Fills the Wujiang" (Ning Kunqiang, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 1993), "The Great Series of Chinese Ethnic Stories (Volume Five: Yao Folk Tales, Bai Folk Tales, Tujia Folk Tales)" (Su Shengxing et al., Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House, 1995), "Tujia Religious Culture in Guizhou: Studies on Nuo Altar Ritual Music" (Deng Guanghua, Taipei: Xinwenfeng Publishing Company, 1997), "A Collection of Sun Jiaxiang's Stories" (Xiao Guosong, Changjiang Literature and Art Publishing House, 1998), "Tujia Folk Literature" (Cao Yi, Central Nationalities University Press, 1999), "The Swan Song of the Tujia View of Life and Death: Sa'erhe" (Tian Wanzhen, Central Nationalities University Press, 1999), "Annotated Poems of the Tian Family's Words" (Chen Xiangfeng, Zhao Pinglüe, Central Nationalities University Press, 1999), "The Rustic Ba People" (Chen Hong, China Federation of Literary and Art Circles Publishing House, 1999), "Creating the Capital: Enshi People in Beijing" (Qin Hong, China Land Publishing House, 1999), "Poets of Successive Dynasties Sing of Shizhou" (Zhang Xingwen, Mou Lianjiu, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001), "A Journey Through Xiangxi" (Ye Weilin, Yunnan People's Publishing House, 2002).
5. Works on Tujia art
"A Collection of Xiangxi Folk Patterns" (Tian Shunxin, Hunan Fine Arts Publishing House, 1986), "Tujia Cymbal Squeezing Tunes" (Peng Xiu, Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1987), "Hand-Waving Songs" (Peng Bo, Peng Jikuan, Yuelu Press, 1989), "Informal Remarks on Tujia Ritual Songs" (Jin Shufu, Peng Rongde, China Folk Literature and Art Publishing House, 1989), "A Tujia Daughter Becomes a Bride" (Peng Rongde, China Folk Literature and Art Publishing House, 1989), "A Record of Seeking Fragrance at Cuifeng: Explorations of Lichuan Xiaogu" (Pan Shunfu, Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1991), "Masked Yang Opera of Xinglong Village, Xiaogang Township, Shuanghe District, Youyang Tujia and Miao Autonomous County, Sichuan Province" (Duan Ming, Taipei: Shi Hezheng Folk Culture Publishing Company, 1993), "Tujia Wind and Percussion Music" (Chen Hong, Changjiang Literature and Art Publishing House, 1994), "The Maogusi Ritual of the Tujia of Shuangfeng Village, Heping Township, Yongshun County, Hunan Province" (Zhang Ziwei, Taipei: Shi Hezheng Folk Culture Publishing Company, 1996), "Local Opera Music of Xiangxi" (Tang Fangke, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 1996), "Changyang Nanqu" (Chen Hong, Changjiang Literature and Art Publishing House, 1999), "Hefeng Liuzi Opera" (Zhao Pingguo, Chen Hecheng, International Culture Publishing Company, 2001), "Jianshi Sixian Gong and Drum" (Wen Shichang, Yuan Xizheng, International Culture Publishing Company, 2001), "Enshi Lantern Opera" (Cheng Shizheng, Huang Yingbai, International Culture Publishing Company, 2001), "Hand-Waving Dance of the Youshui River Basin" (Zhou Yishun, International Culture Publishing Company, 2001), "Badong Tang Opera" (Gao Yuanzhang et al., International Culture Publishing Company, 2001), "Gems of Local Opera and Quyi of Hubei's Ethnic Regions" (Mou Lianjiu, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001), "An Introduction to Tujia Music" (Tian Shigao, Central Nationalities University Press, 2002), "The Musical Characteristics and Social Significance of Tujia Crying Marriage Songs" (Yu Yongyu, Central Nationalities University Press, 2002).
6. Works on Tujia language and writing
"A Brief Gazetteer of the Tujia Language" (Tian Desheng et al., Nationalities Publishing House, 1984), "The Tujia Language of Luxi" (Li Jingzhong, Central Nationalities University Press, 2000), "The Tujia People and the Tujia Language" (Luo Anyuan, Tian Xintao, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001), "Textual Research on Tujia Place Names in China" (Ye Deshu, Xiang Xiqin, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001), "Studies on the Jishou Dialect" (Li Qiqun, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001).
7. Works on Tujia science and technology, education, and sports
Scientific Investigation of Mount Fanjing, Guizhou (Book Compilation Group, China Environmental Science Press, 1987); Selenium Resources and Their Comprehensive Utilization (Liu Peidi, China Science and Technology Press, 1997); A Foundation-Laying Ceremony Across the Century: A Study of Comprehensive Educational Reform in Xiangxi Prefecture (Zhou Chunlu, Chengdu University of Science and Technology Press, 1993); A History of Education for China's Ethnic Minorities (Tian Xiaohong, Geng Guijiang, Yunnan Education Publishing House, 1998); My School and I (Liu Zhonghui, Chongqing Publishing House, 1999); A Record of Tujia Education (Yang Changxin, Hunan People's Publishing House, 2001); A Study of Sports in Xiangxi (Qin Keguo et al., People's Sports Publishing House, 1987); Tujia Folk Sports (Tu Shaosheng, Xiang Mingkun, Minzu University of China Press, 2000); Tujia Medicine and Pharmacology (Peng Yanhui, Guan Xiangzu, Yunnan Nationalities Publishing House, 1994).
8. Works on Tujia Economic and Social Research
The Middle Ground (Tan Minghua, Academic Journals Press, 1989); Forty Years of Striving in Western Hubei (1949–1988) (Statistics Bureau of the Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture of Western Hubei, internal materials, 1990); A Study of Economic Development Strategies for Hubei's Ethnic Regions (Li Tongming, Tong Hao, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press, 1992); An Economic History of the Tujia (Li Wo et al., Shaanxi People's Education Press, 1996); Investigation and Reflection on Economic and Social Development in Ethnic Regions: Reports from the Homeland of the Tujia and Miao (Zhou Shuzhi, China Society Press, 1996); A Study of County-Level Economic Development in Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture (Yi Songlin, Xia Yuanshou, Hunan People's Publishing House, 1997); Out of Poverty: The Way of Poverty Alleviation and Development in Qianjiang (Peng Linxu, Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1998); Choices of Economic Development Approaches for Xiangxi Prefecture (Wu Jihai, China Social Sciences Press, 1999); An Overview of the Pengshui Economy (Book Compilation Group, Sichuan People's Publishing House, 1999); An Arduous Journey—An Empirical Study of Socio-Economic Development in Enshi Prefecture, Hubei (Huang Shuli, Hubei People's Publishing House, 2000); Exploration and Reflection on Economic Development in Tujia Regions (Tian Mengqing, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001); A Study of Rural Social Security in Tujia Regions (Shen Daoquan, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001); Community History and Township Governance: A Study of Rural Religious Culture and Villager Self-Governance in the Tujia Regions of Western Hubei (Sun Qiuyun, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001); Scientific and Technological Progress and Economic and Social Development in Tujia Regions (Li Zhongbin, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001); Enshi: Striding Toward the New Century (Office of the CPC Enshi Autonomous Prefecture Committee, Nationalities Publishing House, 2001); Aspirations in the Hidden Net: A Rational Perspective on Poverty and Anti-Poverty in Xiangxi (You Jun, Long Xianqiong, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 2001); A History of Regional Economic Development of the Tujia (Deng Hui, Minzu University of China Press, 2002); A Study of Regional Sustainable Development of the Tujia (Zhou Xingmao, Minzu University of China Press, 2002).
9. Others
Old Houses: Tujia Stilted Buildings (Zhang Lianggao, Li Yuxiang, Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House, 1994); Towns and Vernacular Architecture in Xiangxi (Wei Yili et al., Tianjin University Press, 1995); Wuling Youshui Bizika (Tian Min, Yunnan University Press, 2001); The Spatiotemporal Domain of a Family: A Case Study of the Qu Clan (Qu Zhoulian, Guizhou Nationalities Publishing House, 2002); A Study of Tujia Customary Law (Ran Chuntao, Lan Shourong, Nationalities Publishing House, 2003); A Study of Tujia Military History (Shi Yazhou, Nationalities Publishing House, 2003); The Tujia: A Survey of Shuangfeng Village, Yongshun County, Hunan (Ma Yuwei, Lu Qun, Yunnan University Press, 2004).
(III) Journal Articles
With the help of database resources such as the CNKI full-text journal database, Wanfang Data, VIP Chinese Science and Technology Journals, and Chaoxing e-books, the author searched and consulted over 900 papers on Tujia culture research. These papers cover every aspect of Tujia culture research, encompassing both studies of Tujia ethnic history and traditional culture and explorations of contemporary issues and specific phenomena of the Tujia. Due to space limitations, the author cannot describe them all in detail and can only select the most important ones for a brief account.
1. Explorations of the Historical Evolution of the Tujia
In Tujia culture research, questions concerning the Tujia's "ethnic origins and ethnic affiliation," the historical process of Tujia development, and the evolution of their institutions have always been key and hot topics for scholars. In 1955, Mr. Pan Guangdan, in his article "The 'Tujia' of Northwestern Hunan and the Ancient Ba People" (published in Collected Papers on Chinese Ethnic Issues, No. 4, edited by the Research Department of the Central Nationalities Institute, November 1955), first proposed the relationship between the origins of the Ba people and the derivation of the "Tujia." From then on, a large number of articles on the historical origins of the Tujia appeared in various periods. Yan Yong, in his article "An Analysis of Tujia Ethnic Origins" (published in Guizhou Ethnic Studies, No. 3, 1999), argued that the Tujia were formed through the fusion of residents in the border areas of Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, and Guizhou with Ba people, Han people, and others who successively migrated in. Tian Min, in his article "A Comprehensive Discussion of the Ethnic Origins of the Ancient Ba" (published in Trends in Ethnic Research, No. 2, 1996), pointed out that the Ba people originated in the upper reaches of the Han River in western China, and that the theory of a western origin of the Ba is consistent with the early historical activities of the entire Ba ethnic group. Dong Luo, in his article "An Examination of the Ba Ancestor and Tribal States" (published in Journal of South-Central University for Nationalities, No. 6, 2003), pointed out that the ancestor of the Ba people was Fuxi of the west, not Taihao of the east; they were two different ancient emperors of the pre-Qin period.
Research on the historical process and institutional evolution of Tujia regions has focused mainly on the following aspects: first, the division of historical stages in the formation and development of the Tujia; second, the sorting out of the political and economic systems of the Tujia in various historical periods before the Tang and Song dynasties; third, the examination of the social structure and changes during the Tujia chieftain period; and fourth, the exploration of social transformations triggered by the "gaitu guiliu" (replacing native chieftains with centrally appointed officials) policy in Tujia regions. Cao Yi, in his article "A Humble View on the Historical Periodization of Tujia Social Formation" (published in Ethnic Forum, No. 3, 1995), divided Tujia social formation into five historical periods: the legendary period, the Bazi State period, the Jimi prefecture and county period, the chieftain period, and the period from after "gaitu guiliu" to the founding of New China. Deng Hui, in his article "A Study of Ancient Economic Development and Currency in the Tujia Regions of Southwestern Hubei" (published in Journal of Hubei Institute for Nationalities, No. 1, 1996), conducted an in-depth discussion of Tujia economic development and currency from the pre-Qin period to the Song dynasty based on the thread of historical development and documentary records, arguing that the commercial activities of the Ba people during the Qin and Han dynasties laid the foundation for the economic development of Tujia regions in the Song dynasty. Duan Chao's "A Brief Analysis of Agricultural Development in Tujia Regions During the Song Dynasty" (published in Journal of Southwest Institute for Nationalities, No. 4, 1999) and Li Qian's "An Analysis of Tujia Economic Forms During the Yuan and Ming Dynasties" (published in Jianghan Forum, No. 10, 1999) respectively introduced the development of agriculture, handicrafts, and commerce in Tujia regions during the Song dynasty and the Yuan-Ming period. Su Xiaoyun's "My Views on 'Gaitu Guiliu' in Tujia Regions" (published in Jianghan Forum, No. 3, 1997) and Tian Min's "On Tujia Chieftains Under the Qing Dynasty Chieftain System" (published in Journal of Northern Hunan Institute for Nationalities, No. 4, 1999) focused on the impact of the Qing government's "gaitu guiliu" policy on the transformation of Tujia social structure.
2. Research on the Formation of the Tujia Ethnic Group and Its Relations with Neighboring Ethnic Groups
The discussion of the formation of the Tujia ethnic group has been an enduring topic among scholars. Yang Ming, in his article "The Alliance of the Five Bazi Clans in Southern Shanxi" (published in Ethnic Research, No. 1, 1997), proposed that the alliance of the five Bazi clans was not in western Hubei but in the Sushui River basin of present-day southern Shanxi. Mr. Yang Changxin, in his article "A Reunderstanding of the Time of Formation of the Tujia Ethnic Community" (published in Journal of South-Central Institute for Nationalities, Humanities and Social Sciences Edition, No. 3, 1999), raised objections to three theories of Tujia ethnic origins, arguing that the Tujia ethnic group should have formed during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Huang Baiquan, in his article "A Discussion of the Question of the Time of Tujia Formation" (published in Journal of Hubei Institute for Nationalities, Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition, No. 2, 2002), pointed out that the Tujia initially formed as a single ethnic community in the Song dynasty and was finally consolidated during the chieftain period. Mr. Peng Yingming, in his article "A Tentative Discussion of the Historical Process of Tujia Formation and Stabilization" (published in Journal of Guangxi Institute for Nationalities, Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition, No. 4, 2004), reviewed several viewpoints in academic circles on the time of Tujia ethnic formation, analyzed their merits and shortcomings, and then expounded his own view on Tujia ethnic formation: it developed during the Qin, Han, Wei, and Jin dynasties, formed during the Tang and Song dynasties, stabilized during the Yuan, Ming, and early Qing dynasties, and entered a period of assimilation and development after "gaitu guiliu."
No ethnic group can survive and develop in isolation; it always seeks opportunities for survival and development through interaction and fusion with neighboring ethnic groups. Yan Weixin's article "The Relationship Between Tujia Culture and Han Culture from the Perspective of 'Ba-Chu Culture'" (published in Chinese Culture Forum, No. 1, 1999) argued that, on the one hand, the Tujia's source culture, namely Ba culture, provided rich nourishment for the development of Han culture, and Tujia culture gave Han culture in the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River a unique regional character; on the other hand, Tujia culture, while absorbing Han culture, retained numerous elements of Ba culture as well as many factors of Chu culture, and while continuously becoming Sinicized, tenaciously maintained its own ethnic characteristics. Zheng Wen's "A Modest Discussion of Ba-Chu Relations" (published in Journal of Northwest Normal University, Social Sciences Edition, No. 6, 1998) verified the historical origins of the long adjacency between Ba and Chu, with their interaction area roughly in the middle and lower reaches of the Han River, where they alternately fought and made peace while cultural exchange continued unabated. Wu Xu's "Changes in the External Relations of Chieftains in the Gorge Region During the Late Ming and Early Qing" (published in Ethnic Forum, No. 3, 1996) mainly discussed the political relations between Tujia chieftains in western Hubei and the central dynasty. Xing Minjian's "The Relationship Between Chu Culture and Various Ethnic Groups as Seen from Archaeological Excavations in the Youshui River Basin" (published in Ethnic Research, No. 1, 1997) analyzed the fusion relationship between the Ba and Chu peoples during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods based on archaeological materials from the Youshui River basin. Duan Chao's "An Analysis of Cultural Interaction Between Han and Tujia from the Yuan to the Early Qing" (published in Ethnic Research, No. 6, 2004) explored the interactive relationship of frequent contact and intense collision between Tujia culture and Han culture from the Yuan dynasty to the early Qing. The article argued that this cultural interaction both strengthened relations between the two ethnic groups and promoted the economic and cultural development of the Tujia, which was conducive to the unity and consolidation of the multi-ethnic state.
3. Research on the Unique Ethnic Cultural Forms of the Tujia
Research on religious belief culture. Because the Tujia mostly lived in areas of mixed ethnic habitation, their religious beliefs were rich in content and distinctive in form. Peng Jikuan's "A Brief Account of Tujia Primitive Religion" (published in Ethnic Forum, No. 3, 1996) focused on the formation of Tujia primitive religion and its manifestations such as totem worship, nature worship, and ancestor worship. Zhu Shixue's "On the Origin and Expressive Functions of Tujia White Tiger Worship" (published in Journal of Hubei Institute for Nationalities, No. 4, 1996) argued that white tiger worship occupied a sacred position in Tujia ideology and became a historical core of Tujia psychological consciousness. Deng Honglei, under the title "The Cultural Transformation of 'The Daoist Transformation of the Tujia' and 'The Tujia Transformation of Daoism' and Its Significance" (published in Jianghan Forum, No. 1, 2000), adopted the perspective of "cultural transformation" and, taking Daoism and Tujia culture as an example, revealed certain laws of cultural transformation between two different cultural systems. Guan Weiliang's "A Brief Discussion of Three Gorges Shaman Culture" (published in Journal of Chongqing Normal University, No. 4, 2003) took the shaman culture among the Ba, Tujia, Chu, and other ethnic groups in the Three Gorges region of the Yangtze River as its narrative object, discussed shamanic customs such as shamanic practices, shamanic rituals, funerals, and taboos, and explored artistic forms such as shamanic songs, shamanic dances, and shamanic dramas and the religious culture that arose from them.
Research on economic culture. Li Gan and Zhou Zhizheng's "The Tujia Economy During the Jimi System Period" (published in Journal of the Central University for Nationalities, No. 4, 1997) gave a comprehensive discussion of the development, characteristics, and role in economic prosperity of agriculture and handicrafts in Tujia regions during the Song and Yuan dynasties. Tian Min's "The Socio-Economic Structure of the Rongmei Chieftain as Seen from the Rongmei Travel Record" (published in Ethnic Forum, No. 3, 1997) outlined the features of the socio-economic structure of the Rongmei chieftain. Wang Zhaohui's "A Tentative Discussion of the Development of Urbanization in Modern Xiangxi" (published in Journal of Jishou University, No. 2, 1996) made a useful exploration of the causes of urbanization and the development of the commodity economy in Tujia regions of Xiangxi during the late Qing and early Republic. Li Qian's "Tujia Handicrafts and Commerce During the Soviet Period" (published in Journal of Hubei Institute for Nationalities, No. 4, 1996) discussed how the Soviet government supported the development of handicrafts and commerce in Tujia regions. Liu Xuexiong's "The Gap in Regional Economic Development of the Tujia" (published in Tujia Studies Journal, No. 2, 2001) analyzed the gap in regional economic development of the Tujia from four aspects and proposed some ideas for promoting coordinated regional economic development. Bai Jinxiang's "A Study of Characteristic Agriculture Development Models in Xiangxi" (published in Agricultural Economic Issues, No. 11, 2003) analyzed the realistic basis for developing characteristic agriculture in Tujia regions of Xiangxi and proposed development strategies and models for characteristic agriculture in those regions.
Research on education, literature, and art. Research on Tujia ethnic education has mainly focused on two aspects: first, discussions of the characteristics and development of ancient Tujia education; second, investigations and analyses of the modern educational situation in Tujia areas, along with in-depth analysis of the overall state of contemporary Tujia educational development. In his article "A Preliminary Discussion of the Development of Education in Tujia Areas During the Tusi Period" (published in Guizhou Ethnic Studies, 1994, No. 2), Duan Chao explored the historical background and contemporary significance of the Tusi establishing schools. Xu Yiting's article "Ancient Tujia Education and Its Influence on Han Culture" (published in Ethnic Education Research, 1999, No. 2) explored the rise and development of Tujia school education during the Tusi period and analyzed the transmission relationship between ancient Tujia education and Han culture. Ding Shizhong's article "Tujia Education and Confucian Culture" (published in Chongqing Social Sciences, 2005, No. 6) explored the development of school education in Tujia areas during the Tusi period and its Confucian cultural characteristics. In "A Brief Discussion of the Historical Characteristics of Tujia Education in Chongqing" (published in Guizhou Ethnic Studies, 2001, No. 3), Tan Zaiqiong analyzed the traditional and ethnic characteristics of modern education among the Tujia in eastern Sichuan. In "Research on Problems in Basic Education in the Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture" (published in Educational Finance and Accounting Research, 2005, No. 4), Liao Yanshui analyzed prominent problems in basic education for the Tujia in Xiangxi and proposed ideas for accelerating the development of basic education in ethnic areas. Research on Tujia literature and art has also mainly focused on two aspects: first, research on surviving folk literature; second, reviews of works by contemporary Tujia writers. In "The 'Toad Diagram' in the Evolution of Five-Line Mountain Songs in the Southwest" (published in Journal of the Central University for Nationalities, 1996, No. 2), Cai Yuanheng used the figurative form of the "toad diagram" to express the gestation and formation process of the five-line songs of Tujia folk poetry. In "The Practical Value and Contemporary Significance of the Tujia Danao Song" (published in Guizhou Ethnic Studies, 1996, No. 4), Tian Mu analyzed the origins and practical value of the Tujia Danao song. Xiong Xiaohui's article "A Comparative Study of the Tujia Ethnic Song-Music 'Lin Ge' and 'Tima'" (published in Journal of Neijiang Normal University, 2002, No. 5) was a comparative study of "Lin Ge" and "Tima" in terms of performance scope, performance form and content, as well as melody, lyric structure, and modes of expression. Xu Hong's article "The Search for the Root of Literature and the Pursuit of Spiritual Conversion" (published in Journal of Southwest University for Nationalities, 2000, No. 4) described the cultural forms of the creative systems of Tujia writers Ran Yiguang and A Duo; in examining their works, the author held that literary works are a reflection of ethnic spirit and ethnic psychological qualities. Song Yongxiang's "Concern for Survival, Meditation on Life" (published in Journal of Southwest University for Nationalities, 2000, No. 8) was a review of the realist spirit in the fiction of Tujia writer Chen Chuan. In "Seeking the Secrets of Tujia Culture" (published in Ethnic Literature, 2003, No. 5), Wu Daoyi held that the novels of Tujia writer Ye Mei contain cultural significance in multiple disciplines such as ethnology, folklore, and cultural studies.
Research on customary culture. Customary culture is an important component of ethnic culture. The important reason why the Tujia have been able to endure many vicissitudes and become a member of the great family of the Chinese nation distinct from other ethnic groups lies in the fact that they have religious belief customs, production and daily life customs, festival and ritual customs, marriage and courtship customs, and funeral cultural customs different from those of other ethnic groups. In "The Evolution of Ba-Tujia Deity Worship and Changes in Historical Culture" (published in Journal of South-Central University for Nationalities, 2001, No. 6), Xiang Baisong explored changes in the primitive religious belief customs of the Ba people and their descendants, the Tujia. In "A Brief Discussion of the Tujia Worship and Expulsion of the White Tiger" (published in Guizhou Ethnic Studies, 1999, No. 3), Chen Guo'an pointed out that the Tujia tiger totem worship has different regional characteristics and different cultural implications. You Jun's "Research on Tujia Taboo Culture" (published in Journal of Jishou University, 2001, No. 1), focusing on the Tujia of Xiangxi, explored the influence of Tujia taboo customs on people's production and daily life. Zhou Xingmao's article "The Four Major Rites of the Tujia and Their Humanistic Value" (published in Journal of Chongqing Three Gorges University, 2003, No. 4) explored the humanistic value of the four major rites of the Tujia: birth rites, wedding rites, coming-of-age rites, and longevity rites. Zhang Yingbin's article "Ancient Tujia Marriage and Courtship Customs" (published in Guizhou Ethnic Studies, 1999, No. 2) provided an in-depth analysis of the primitive marriage and courtship customs of the Tujia. Peng Linxu's article "The Evolution of Tujia Marriage Customs" (published in Journal of Hubei University for Nationalities, 2001, No. 2) explained the manifestations of Tujia marriage customs and the social causes of their changes. Cao Yi's article "Tujia Funeral Customs and Their Cultural Connotations" (published in Journal of Hubei University for Nationalities, 1997, No. 1) specifically explored funeral customs that appeared historically in Tujia areas and analyzed the specific ethnic cultural connotations they contain. Luo Peng's article "A Field Investigation of Tujia Funeral Customs" (published in Journal of Hubei University for Nationalities, 2001, No. 2) described in detail the rituals of Tujia funeral customs. Bai Xiaoping's article "A Preliminary Probe into the Cultural Origins of the Tujia 'Funeral Dance'" (published in Journal of China Three Gorges University, 2001, No. 4) held that the Tujia "funeral dance" custom has close origins with Ba-Chu culture, the Tujia's distinctive religious belief culture, and the war dances of Tujia ancestors.
4. Research on the development and utilization of Tujia ethnic cultural resources
Taking the Tujia as an example, Li Zhongbin wrote the article "On Scientific and Technological Progress and the Development of Ethnic Cultural Resources" (published in Ethnic Studies, 2002, No. 3). The article discussed the relationship between scientific and technological progress and the development of ethnic cultural resources, and explored several measures for developing Tujia cultural resources, among which relying on scientific and technological innovation to promote cultural resource development is key. In "Economic Development Strategy for the Wuling Mountain Area in the Western Development Campaign" (published in Journal of Jishou University, 2001, No. 3), Deng Bihai pointed out that the development and utilization of Tujia ethnic cultural resources must be placed in a priority position in considering the economic development of the Wuling Mountain area. Wang Wenming's article "Brand Strategy for Tujia Cultural Development" (published in Journal of Hubei University for Nationalities, 2003, No. 1) explored the practical issue of transforming the advantage of cultural resources into an advantage serving economic development and making the distinctive tourism industry of the Tujia areas of western Hunan and Hubei bigger and stronger. Wang Shanhe's article "Discussion of Tourism Function Positioning and Tourism Resource Development in Ethnic Minority Areas of Southeastern Chongqing" (published in Journal of Fuling Teachers College, 2003, No. 6) proposed that the tourism industry in Tujia regions should be positioned as an ethnic ecological culture zone and that ecological protection and ethnic cultural development should be organically combined.